Dr. David Gwynn

And this is work that was done in concert with and under the direction of my collaborator at the University of Copenhagen, Eski Willerslev. We were able to show, for example, that mammoth, woolly mammoth, right, survived up until... around 10 or 11,000 years ago across most of the Arctic region, right? We had samples that were literally, you know, sort of circle the Northern hemisphere.

We had samples from North America. We had samples from Northern Europe. We had samples from Northern Asia. And one of the just astonishing finds that came out of that work was that mammoth, as the Pleistocene is coming to an end, of course, are going extinct across virtually the entire Arctic, except in far northern Siberia.

We had samples from North America. We had samples from Northern Europe. We had samples from Northern Asia. And one of the just astonishing finds that came out of that work was that mammoth, as the Pleistocene is coming to an end, of course, are going extinct across virtually the entire Arctic, except in far northern Siberia.

We had samples from North America. We had samples from Northern Europe. We had samples from Northern Asia. And one of the just astonishing finds that came out of that work was that mammoth, as the Pleistocene is coming to an end, of course, are going extinct across virtually the entire Arctic, except in far northern Siberia.

That's the exact correct term, because what happened is, and we know this from the vegetation record that we have in that sediment DNA, is that for all intents and purposes, in terms of the vegetation... The Pleistocene didn't end until 4,000 years ago.

That's the exact correct term, because what happened is, and we know this from the vegetation record that we have in that sediment DNA, is that for all intents and purposes, in terms of the vegetation... The Pleistocene didn't end until 4,000 years ago.

That's the exact correct term, because what happened is, and we know this from the vegetation record that we have in that sediment DNA, is that for all intents and purposes, in terms of the vegetation... The Pleistocene didn't end until 4,000 years ago.

Now, let me just add something because I suspect there'll be savvy listeners out there who will say, well, we've always known that mammoths survived on these islands in the Arctic seas. And that's true, right? But these were mammoths that survived on the mainland, right? The mainland of what's now the Timur Peninsula up until around 4,000 years ago when the vegetation finally...

Now, let me just add something because I suspect there'll be savvy listeners out there who will say, well, we've always known that mammoths survived on these islands in the Arctic seas. And that's true, right? But these were mammoths that survived on the mainland, right? The mainland of what's now the Timur Peninsula up until around 4,000 years ago when the vegetation finally...

Now, let me just add something because I suspect there'll be savvy listeners out there who will say, well, we've always known that mammoths survived on these islands in the Arctic seas. And that's true, right? But these were mammoths that survived on the mainland, right? The mainland of what's now the Timur Peninsula up until around 4,000 years ago when the vegetation finally...

changed from that sort of mammoth step these animals favored to the vegetation that we have in that region today. So again, DNA in all its forms, ancient forms, whether from sediment or from bone, has been just a sea change.

changed from that sort of mammoth step these animals favored to the vegetation that we have in that region today. So again, DNA in all its forms, ancient forms, whether from sediment or from bone, has been just a sea change.

changed from that sort of mammoth step these animals favored to the vegetation that we have in that region today. So again, DNA in all its forms, ancient forms, whether from sediment or from bone, has been just a sea change.

Well, so the Ice Age proper, for all those geologists out there listening, it goes back 2 million years. Wow. But it was never sort of frozen the entire time. It was never that we had ice sheets. The Ice Age goes in cycles, where you have glaciers advancing, glaciers retreating.

Well, so the Ice Age proper, for all those geologists out there listening, it goes back 2 million years. Wow. But it was never sort of frozen the entire time. It was never that we had ice sheets. The Ice Age goes in cycles, where you have glaciers advancing, glaciers retreating.

Well, so the Ice Age proper, for all those geologists out there listening, it goes back 2 million years. Wow. But it was never sort of frozen the entire time. It was never that we had ice sheets. The Ice Age goes in cycles, where you have glaciers advancing, glaciers retreating.

In terms of our story, the story of the Americas and people coming in and animals going extinct, we're really talking about the last, say, 30,000 years. Because starting around 30,000 years ago, we start to see glaciers building up over what's now Canada and expanding. And they will expand basically in all directions and ultimately will reach what's known as the last glacial maximum.

In terms of our story, the story of the Americas and people coming in and animals going extinct, we're really talking about the last, say, 30,000 years. Because starting around 30,000 years ago, we start to see glaciers building up over what's now Canada and expanding. And they will expand basically in all directions and ultimately will reach what's known as the last glacial maximum.

In terms of our story, the story of the Americas and people coming in and animals going extinct, we're really talking about the last, say, 30,000 years. Because starting around 30,000 years ago, we start to see glaciers building up over what's now Canada and expanding. And they will expand basically in all directions and ultimately will reach what's known as the last glacial maximum.

That's the period of which ice was at its greatest extent on the landscape. And that last glacial maximum The dates vary depending on who you ask, but we're talking about, say, oh, 24,000 years ago up until around 18,000, 19,000 years ago. We don't need to be terribly precise about it. But that was the window of time when the ice was at its maximum. It was coldest.