Dr. David Gwynn

And it is perhaps helpful that both Constantine II and Constans die quite early, partly in a civil war between the brothers. Constans is murdered in a usurpation. Constantius, who's Constans' longest surviving son, is an interesting figure simply because all our sources hate him. He actually seems to have been a solid, if not particularly imaginative, emperor.

His problem is Ammianus Marcellinus, our one narrative historian, is a pagan supporter of Julian, and Julian revolted against Constantius. But Constantius in Christian tradition is remembered as a heretic, so the Christian sources don't like him either. But overall, Constantius left a relatively stable empire in 361. Julian was marching to attack Constantius, and then Constantius died.

His problem is Ammianus Marcellinus, our one narrative historian, is a pagan supporter of Julian, and Julian revolted against Constantius. But Constantius in Christian tradition is remembered as a heretic, so the Christian sources don't like him either. But overall, Constantius left a relatively stable empire in 361. Julian was marching to attack Constantius, and then Constantius died.

His problem is Ammianus Marcellinus, our one narrative historian, is a pagan supporter of Julian, and Julian revolted against Constantius. But Constantius in Christian tradition is remembered as a heretic, so the Christian sources don't like him either. But overall, Constantius left a relatively stable empire in 361. Julian was marching to attack Constantius, and then Constantius died.

It does genuinely seem to be of natural causes. So a civil war that would have happened didn't. After Julian's disaster, what you then get is a very short-lived emperor named Jovian, but then once again the empire is divided. Because everybody has been aware ever since the third century crisis, one man ruling the empire, if there's any kind of problems, can't cope.

It does genuinely seem to be of natural causes. So a civil war that would have happened didn't. After Julian's disaster, what you then get is a very short-lived emperor named Jovian, but then once again the empire is divided. Because everybody has been aware ever since the third century crisis, one man ruling the empire, if there's any kind of problems, can't cope.

It does genuinely seem to be of natural causes. So a civil war that would have happened didn't. After Julian's disaster, what you then get is a very short-lived emperor named Jovian, but then once again the empire is divided. Because everybody has been aware ever since the third century crisis, one man ruling the empire, if there's any kind of problems, can't cope.

Exactly. Sole rule, so one emperor, is actually very rare. from the heart of the third century crisis onwards. Constantine manages it for 13 years. Constantius is the sole emperor after he kills the usurper responsible for the death of his last brother, but again for less than a decade. Julian only rules for 18 months. Jovian, six months.

Exactly. Sole rule, so one emperor, is actually very rare. from the heart of the third century crisis onwards. Constantine manages it for 13 years. Constantius is the sole emperor after he kills the usurper responsible for the death of his last brother, but again for less than a decade. Julian only rules for 18 months. Jovian, six months.

Exactly. Sole rule, so one emperor, is actually very rare. from the heart of the third century crisis onwards. Constantine manages it for 13 years. Constantius is the sole emperor after he kills the usurper responsible for the death of his last brother, but again for less than a decade. Julian only rules for 18 months. Jovian, six months.

Then you have two emperors named Valentinian and Valens, their brothers, and they promptly split the empire again because Julian's disaster with the Persians has caused problems on the eastern frontier, but there's also problems on the Rhine. The other great frontiers, then you've got the Danube as well, the two great European rivers.

Then you have two emperors named Valentinian and Valens, their brothers, and they promptly split the empire again because Julian's disaster with the Persians has caused problems on the eastern frontier, but there's also problems on the Rhine. The other great frontiers, then you've got the Danube as well, the two great European rivers.

Then you have two emperors named Valentinian and Valens, their brothers, and they promptly split the empire again because Julian's disaster with the Persians has caused problems on the eastern frontier, but there's also problems on the Rhine. The other great frontiers, then you've got the Danube as well, the two great European rivers.

So Valentinian goes westward, leaves Valens to deal with the east. And the empire's only actually going to be reunited again once. And that's in the aftermath of, again, a series of civil wars by Theodosius I, Theodosius the Great, who actually only ruled the entire United Empire for a couple of years.

So Valentinian goes westward, leaves Valens to deal with the east. And the empire's only actually going to be reunited again once. And that's in the aftermath of, again, a series of civil wars by Theodosius I, Theodosius the Great, who actually only ruled the entire United Empire for a couple of years.

So Valentinian goes westward, leaves Valens to deal with the east. And the empire's only actually going to be reunited again once. And that's in the aftermath of, again, a series of civil wars by Theodosius I, Theodosius the Great, who actually only ruled the entire United Empire for a couple of years.

And when he died in the year 395, he split the empire between his sons, exactly what Constantine did. So it can't have surprised anybody at the time. What we know, hindsight being brilliant, is 395's the last division. The empire will never reunite again. But there's no way anyone could have known that at the time.

And when he died in the year 395, he split the empire between his sons, exactly what Constantine did. So it can't have surprised anybody at the time. What we know, hindsight being brilliant, is 395's the last division. The empire will never reunite again. But there's no way anyone could have known that at the time.

And when he died in the year 395, he split the empire between his sons, exactly what Constantine did. So it can't have surprised anybody at the time. What we know, hindsight being brilliant, is 395's the last division. The empire will never reunite again. But there's no way anyone could have known that at the time.

To a degree, yes. And actually, it's before Diocletian. It happened during the third century crisis. The great Roman frontiers, so the Rhine and Danube rivers, the Persian frontier, you can't manage those from Rome. It's too far away. So more and more, the soldier emperors of the third century don't even come to Rome. It is a fascinating feature of the Tetrarchy of Diocletian.