Dr. Zosia Archibald

So it may be that the stories that we find in written poems, such as Homer, do reflect something about that Bronze Age background. But the poems themselves reflect a later period, the early first millennium BC, when we find ships travelling regularly up to the north, mainly merchant ships. And the frequency of these visits seems to be what generates the stories. So once these become regular,

So it may be that the stories that we find in written poems, such as Homer, do reflect something about that Bronze Age background. But the poems themselves reflect a later period, the early first millennium BC, when we find ships travelling regularly up to the north, mainly merchant ships. And the frequency of these visits seems to be what generates the stories. So once these become regular,

forms of traffic, then we get these stories emerging. And they're connected with the difficult journeys right up into the Black Sea. So, you know, the Argonautic legends are very much part of that background.

forms of traffic, then we get these stories emerging. And they're connected with the difficult journeys right up into the Black Sea. So, you know, the Argonautic legends are very much part of that background.

because it's connected to the stopping-off points along the North Aegean coast, as well as the difficulties of actually penetrating the dangerous waters of the Bosporus Basin.

because it's connected to the stopping-off points along the North Aegean coast, as well as the difficulties of actually penetrating the dangerous waters of the Bosporus Basin.

I think part of the problem with this question is that we use a few small statements that in a small number of writers and big them up. And then we think that that's reality. But the warlike aspect of Thracians that comes across, it's a very strong subtext, is partly connected to people who are thought of as a bit dangerous, actually quite powerful. You need to take them seriously.

I think part of the problem with this question is that we use a few small statements that in a small number of writers and big them up. And then we think that that's reality. But the warlike aspect of Thracians that comes across, it's a very strong subtext, is partly connected to people who are thought of as a bit dangerous, actually quite powerful. You need to take them seriously.

And much of that sense of war-likeness is reflected in the journey that Xenophon, the historian, made to become a mercenary of the prince Seuthes and spend about a month or so as a mercenary with some of his fellow Greeks who were trying to get back to Greece from Asia Minor.

And much of that sense of war-likeness is reflected in the journey that Xenophon, the historian, made to become a mercenary of the prince Seuthes and spend about a month or so as a mercenary with some of his fellow Greeks who were trying to get back to Greece from Asia Minor.

Yes, yes. Seuthes, who appears in Xenophon's Anabasis, where Xenophon recalls how the Greeks, after being defeated by the Persian prince who managed to defeat his brother Cyrus, all the supporters of Cyrus had to somehow get away. Some of them were

Yes, yes. Seuthes, who appears in Xenophon's Anabasis, where Xenophon recalls how the Greeks, after being defeated by the Persian prince who managed to defeat his brother Cyrus, all the supporters of Cyrus had to somehow get away. Some of them were

killed but some of them got away and Xenophon was one of them and he tells us all about their adventures trying to get back to Greece and on the final leg of their journey They try and get across to Byzantium, and the Spartan governor of Byzantium doesn't want to know them. He wants them to get away. So this is 400 BC, and Xenophon and his chaps decide, well, we can't get back to Greece yet.

killed but some of them got away and Xenophon was one of them and he tells us all about their adventures trying to get back to Greece and on the final leg of their journey They try and get across to Byzantium, and the Spartan governor of Byzantium doesn't want to know them. He wants them to get away. So this is 400 BC, and Xenophon and his chaps decide, well, we can't get back to Greece yet.

We might as well make the most of this and go and fight for this prince Euthysius. defeat a few villagers using our good Greek infantry tactics and armor and get a bit of a bonus in the process. So they get paid for their services. And Xenophon is sort of in two minds about how he describes this, because on the one hand,

We might as well make the most of this and go and fight for this prince Euthysius. defeat a few villagers using our good Greek infantry tactics and armor and get a bit of a bonus in the process. So they get paid for their services. And Xenophon is sort of in two minds about how he describes this, because on the one hand,

He wants to show how he and his men got into some scrapes and managed to escape from them because he's telling all his friends back home about what it's like. And at the same time, he's a little bit embarrassed about being a mercenary in this area. So he bigs up what the mercenaries do and downplays the opposition.

He wants to show how he and his men got into some scrapes and managed to escape from them because he's telling all his friends back home about what it's like. And at the same time, he's a little bit embarrassed about being a mercenary in this area. So he bigs up what the mercenaries do and downplays the opposition.

Well, they weren't just mercenaries. They were regular soldiers. The history of Alexander the Great is peppered with Thracian detachments. And when people talk about Thracian fighters, they sort of forget about all those Thracians who went off and fought with Alexander the Great. Well, what about them? What were the strengths of Thracian soldiers? Well, particularly cavalry.

Well, they weren't just mercenaries. They were regular soldiers. The history of Alexander the Great is peppered with Thracian detachments. And when people talk about Thracian fighters, they sort of forget about all those Thracians who went off and fought with Alexander the Great. Well, what about them? What were the strengths of Thracian soldiers? Well, particularly cavalry.

Cavalry fighting was quite difficult. We're dealing with a period where people don't have the sort of equipment that more modern cavalries have. They didn't have stirrups. So they were using their real experience as horsemen to fight effectively from a horse without falling off. And that's not something that you can learn quickly.

Cavalry fighting was quite difficult. We're dealing with a period where people don't have the sort of equipment that more modern cavalries have. They didn't have stirrups. So they were using their real experience as horsemen to fight effectively from a horse without falling off. And that's not something that you can learn quickly.

So successful cavalry warfare is something that we associate with northern Greece and with the Balkans. And there are various cavalry armies that were really very effective in the period before the Roman Empire. We hear about the Illyrians who defeated Philip II of Macedon's older brother and killed him off.

So successful cavalry warfare is something that we associate with northern Greece and with the Balkans. And there are various cavalry armies that were really very effective in the period before the Roman Empire. We hear about the Illyrians who defeated Philip II of Macedon's older brother and killed him off.

That was a tremendous defeat for the Macedonians, and they had to improve their cavalry tactics. And at the same time, you've got Thracians being very effective cavalrymen. And that's one of the reasons why we have Thracian units in Alexander's army. They do enhance the cavalry capacity of those troops that crossed over into Asia to fight the Persians.

That was a tremendous defeat for the Macedonians, and they had to improve their cavalry tactics. And at the same time, you've got Thracians being very effective cavalrymen. And that's one of the reasons why we have Thracian units in Alexander's army. They do enhance the cavalry capacity of those troops that crossed over into Asia to fight the Persians.

So this is one of the reasons why we hear about lots of Thracians fighting for the successor kings. We get Thracians in Egypt who were given land by the Ptolemies because they were effective military fighters, because these were people who were there not just as settlers, they were there also because of their military skills. And we have Macedonians like that. And we also have Thracians.

So this is one of the reasons why we hear about lots of Thracians fighting for the successor kings. We get Thracians in Egypt who were given land by the Ptolemies because they were effective military fighters, because these were people who were there not just as settlers, they were there also because of their military skills. And we have Macedonians like that. And we also have Thracians.

So when we think about Thracians, we shouldn't just be thinking about the unusual people equipment, which is certainly true. It's not been very easy to find examples of these sorts of weapons. But the rum fire, I think, is the type of very sharp and long javelin that you were referring to. So, Really, this is part of the story of Thracian warfare that hasn't really been discovered yet.

So when we think about Thracians, we shouldn't just be thinking about the unusual people equipment, which is certainly true. It's not been very easy to find examples of these sorts of weapons. But the rum fire, I think, is the type of very sharp and long javelin that you were referring to. So, Really, this is part of the story of Thracian warfare that hasn't really been discovered yet.

It would be great to know more about those sorts of tactics. And Thracian horsemen continued to be of great interest in the period when the Romans expanded into the Balkans. And we find Thracians and then Sarmatians all over the place because they're jolly useful cavalrymen. So cavalry fighting was really one of the key areas.

It would be great to know more about those sorts of tactics. And Thracian horsemen continued to be of great interest in the period when the Romans expanded into the Balkans. And we find Thracians and then Sarmatians all over the place because they're jolly useful cavalrymen. So cavalry fighting was really one of the key areas.

And the other one was light-armed troops who could provide slingers or essentially guerrilla tactics.

And the other one was light-armed troops who could provide slingers or essentially guerrilla tactics.

Herodotus does adopt this phrase that if all the Thracians united together, they would be more powerful than anyone else. It is a very powerful anecdote. The period between the middle of the 5th century and the time of Philip II of Macedon, so the middle of the 4th century, this is a period when

Herodotus does adopt this phrase that if all the Thracians united together, they would be more powerful than anyone else. It is a very powerful anecdote. The period between the middle of the 5th century and the time of Philip II of Macedon, so the middle of the 4th century, this is a period when

a large part of Thrace between the Danube and the Aegean coastline was effectively united under a single dynasty, the Odrysian kings. And this was partly in response to what happened in the region during the Persian Wars, because the Persian Wars were really very... and damaging for all the European dwellers of southeastern Europe.

a large part of Thrace between the Danube and the Aegean coastline was effectively united under a single dynasty, the Odrysian kings. And this was partly in response to what happened in the region during the Persian Wars, because the Persian Wars were really very... and damaging for all the European dwellers of southeastern Europe.

There are some traces of massacres in Romanian territory around the city of Histria, which suggests that the Persians might have been much more vindictive towards those who did not show them absolute sovereignty. So the period between 500 BC and the successful battles in 479 BC

There are some traces of massacres in Romanian territory around the city of Histria, which suggests that the Persians might have been much more vindictive towards those who did not show them absolute sovereignty. So the period between 500 BC and the successful battles in 479 BC

This is a period which is extremely problematic for all the people who found themselves effectively enslaved by Persian authorities. So the reaction to that was to seek refuge. some sort of political unification. There was a willingness on the part of various political groupings to unite.

This is a period which is extremely problematic for all the people who found themselves effectively enslaved by Persian authorities. So the reaction to that was to seek refuge. some sort of political unification. There was a willingness on the part of various political groupings to unite.

And that may have been a stronger sense of unity than there actually was in much of the Greek mainland, where many Greeks continued to fight amongst themselves. And, of course, some of them were fighting on the Persian side in the Persian Wars as Some of them were forced into that. Some of them took advantage of that.

And that may have been a stronger sense of unity than there actually was in much of the Greek mainland, where many Greeks continued to fight amongst themselves. And, of course, some of them were fighting on the Persian side in the Persian Wars as Some of them were forced into that. Some of them took advantage of that.

Thank you. Thank you, Tristan. I'm really pleased to be contributing something on this exciting topic.

Thank you. Thank you, Tristan. I'm really pleased to be contributing something on this exciting topic.

So the Persian Wars were a very difficult time, and they did create particular new perspectives on international affairs. Before that time, there hadn't really been any incentive to create any sort of unitary authority. And we find after the Persian Wars, the strengthening and enlargement of Macedonia under Alexander I and Thrace a little bit later. But

So the Persian Wars were a very difficult time, and they did create particular new perspectives on international affairs. Before that time, there hadn't really been any incentive to create any sort of unitary authority. And we find after the Persian Wars, the strengthening and enlargement of Macedonia under Alexander I and Thrace a little bit later. But

In the immediate aftermath, we're not quite sure exactly how that panned out, but the same process seems to have taken place in much of the area south of the Balkan range. And this seems to have been really quite a stable authority. There are lots of historians who think of it as a rather unstable state of affairs, but there is no evidence for this instability. It's largely imaginary.

In the immediate aftermath, we're not quite sure exactly how that panned out, but the same process seems to have taken place in much of the area south of the Balkan range. And this seems to have been really quite a stable authority. There are lots of historians who think of it as a rather unstable state of affairs, but there is no evidence for this instability. It's largely imaginary.

We don't have much evidence of this in written records, but what we do have is lots and lots of archaeology. And it's the archaeology that really gives us most of our information about what was actually going on. And this period between about 450 onwards is one of real economic boom in this region.

We don't have much evidence of this in written records, but what we do have is lots and lots of archaeology. And it's the archaeology that really gives us most of our information about what was actually going on. And this period between about 450 onwards is one of real economic boom in this region.

And that's reflected in commercial relations, which means import and export of various commodities, the import of wine and olive oil, the export of iron objects, weapons, tools, and all kinds of other products, probably textiles, the textiles that appear on Athenian vases, the sort of nice patterned cloaks.

And that's reflected in commercial relations, which means import and export of various commodities, the import of wine and olive oil, the export of iron objects, weapons, tools, and all kinds of other products, probably textiles, the textiles that appear on Athenian vases, the sort of nice patterned cloaks.

These are the kinds of things that were likely exported as well as produced in large quantities for internal consumption. So it's a very lively traffic and we see this

These are the kinds of things that were likely exported as well as produced in large quantities for internal consumption. So it's a very lively traffic and we see this

Well, indeed. We can start with Homer. This is one of our first written sources about people called Thracians. And the Homeric poems refer to Thracians as allies of the Trojans and therefore allies enemies of the Greeks from the mainland.

Well, indeed. We can start with Homer. This is one of our first written sources about people called Thracians. And the Homeric poems refer to Thracians as allies of the Trojans and therefore allies enemies of the Greeks from the mainland.

In those places that have been excavated intensively, I've been associated with a place called Pisteros, which is bang in the middle of the Thracian plain and was a very big city that was importing and exporting various kinds of commodities.

In those places that have been excavated intensively, I've been associated with a place called Pisteros, which is bang in the middle of the Thracian plain and was a very big city that was importing and exporting various kinds of commodities.

Yes, yes. You've mentioned Seuthopolis, and Seuthopolis is one of those key sites named after the ruler Seuthes III, who fought Lysimachus, one of Alexander the Great's successors in the region. And there is also Helles, the modern name Sporianovo. This is a big fortress city, very extensive territory,

Yes, yes. You've mentioned Seuthopolis, and Seuthopolis is one of those key sites named after the ruler Seuthes III, who fought Lysimachus, one of Alexander the Great's successors in the region. And there is also Helles, the modern name Sporianovo. This is a big fortress city, very extensive territory,

which is perhaps the site of the headquarters of another opponent of Lysimachus, namely Dromychites. So we have a number of excavated places that we can point to. But it's worth saying that many cities were created in this period that haven't survived. And that's true of Macedonia as it is of Thrace. And this is simply because cities were a relatively ephemeral phenomenon for a long time.

which is perhaps the site of the headquarters of another opponent of Lysimachus, namely Dromychites. So we have a number of excavated places that we can point to. But it's worth saying that many cities were created in this period that haven't survived. And that's true of Macedonia as it is of Thrace. And this is simply because cities were a relatively ephemeral phenomenon for a long time.

And it's only the ones that have survived into the Roman Empire that we've really paid attention to because they've survived. And there are lots of reasons why they survived. But the survivors conceal a lot of what we would like to know about earlier periods.

And it's only the ones that have survived into the Roman Empire that we've really paid attention to because they've survived. And there are lots of reasons why they survived. But the survivors conceal a lot of what we would like to know about earlier periods.

So the critical phase before the Roman Empire, what we call the Hellenistic Age between the 3rd and the 1st centuries BC, this is a largely unknown period, and not just in Thrace, also in many other parts of the Aegean. We'd like to know more about it, and this is true of The Levant, the great cities. I mean, you think about Antioch on the Orontes.

So the critical phase before the Roman Empire, what we call the Hellenistic Age between the 3rd and the 1st centuries BC, this is a largely unknown period, and not just in Thrace, also in many other parts of the Aegean. We'd like to know more about it, and this is true of The Levant, the great cities. I mean, you think about Antioch on the Orontes.

What do we really know about Antioch in this period? We'd love to know more.

What do we really know about Antioch in this period? We'd love to know more.

Yes.

Yes.

But if we look at these references in detail, we can see that most of the information comes from seafaring sources, people who actually crossed the Aegean Sea and met other people at the other end. But this sort of writing reflects a real curiosity about the north, the north, the exciting north. which is part of the unknown territory of Europe.

But if we look at these references in detail, we can see that most of the information comes from seafaring sources, people who actually crossed the Aegean Sea and met other people at the other end. But this sort of writing reflects a real curiosity about the north, the north, the exciting north. which is part of the unknown territory of Europe.

It is. It's a fantastic find. I wrote a master's thesis about the Panagioriste treasure. And it is. It's a very, very extraordinary find. It was displayed in the British Museum just over a year ago.

It is. It's a fantastic find. I wrote a master's thesis about the Panagioriste treasure. And it is. It's a very, very extraordinary find. It was displayed in the British Museum just over a year ago.

It's also part of the finds that are on display at the Getty Research Institute at the Getty Villa in Malibu. The Panagiarista treasure is a collection of drinking vessels made entirely of gold. This is absolutely extraordinary because very little gold tableware survives from any period. We hear about Renaissance gold plates and things, but you don't often find them surviving.

It's also part of the finds that are on display at the Getty Research Institute at the Getty Villa in Malibu. The Panagiarista treasure is a collection of drinking vessels made entirely of gold. This is absolutely extraordinary because very little gold tableware survives from any period. We hear about Renaissance gold plates and things, but you don't often find them surviving.

They've usually been melted down. So the Panagirishtha treasure is unique because of this factor. and it was buried until the late 1940s, so it survived accidentally. But what is even more extraordinary about it is the way in which particular vessel forms are connected with relief imagery, imagery represented in repoussé, figures.

They've usually been melted down. So the Panagirishtha treasure is unique because of this factor. and it was buried until the late 1940s, so it survived accidentally. But what is even more extraordinary about it is the way in which particular vessel forms are connected with relief imagery, imagery represented in repoussé, figures.

So we have animal representations, we have figure scenes from Greek mythology. Now, it is worth considering whether some of these myths were shared myths rather than being exclusively Greek myths. Even to suggest this is a little bit But many myths from the remote past were Indo-European myths. They weren't exclusively Greek or Italian or Anatolian.

So we have animal representations, we have figure scenes from Greek mythology. Now, it is worth considering whether some of these myths were shared myths rather than being exclusively Greek myths. Even to suggest this is a little bit But many myths from the remote past were Indo-European myths. They weren't exclusively Greek or Italian or Anatolian.

But they take different forms in different linguistic traditions. And here I'd like to point to another truly remarkable piece of archaeology, which is the head of King Seuthes III.

But they take different forms in different linguistic traditions. And here I'd like to point to another truly remarkable piece of archaeology, which is the head of King Seuthes III.

It is. It's one of the finest bronze portrait heads ever. and indeed one of the earliest surviving portrait heads from antiquity. And it was found in the entrance to a tomb, a tomb that was not looted and therefore contained a lot of the original artifacts. But this head originally belonged to a complete statue. And the head was

It is. It's one of the finest bronze portrait heads ever. and indeed one of the earliest surviving portrait heads from antiquity. And it was found in the entrance to a tomb, a tomb that was not looted and therefore contained a lot of the original artifacts. But this head originally belonged to a complete statue. And the head was

cut off rather roughly, presumably after the death of Cephas III, and placed in the entrance of the tomb. So why cut off the bronze head of a statue and put it in the tomb? Because it then becomes a severed head. And in a recent article, which is freely available online, I have suggested, and I'm not the first person to suggest this, but I think it's an independently suggested thing.

cut off rather roughly, presumably after the death of Cephas III, and placed in the entrance of the tomb. So why cut off the bronze head of a statue and put it in the tomb? Because it then becomes a severed head. And in a recent article, which is freely available online, I have suggested, and I'm not the first person to suggest this, but I think it's an independently suggested thing.

I've suggested that the reason why this head was cut off the statue was because then you have the full power of the individual concentrated in this head. And it becomes a prophetic head, like the head of Orpheus that sang after death. And there are many European traditions. There's the Irish head of Bran. There are other versions of these severed heads that become prophetic.

I've suggested that the reason why this head was cut off the statue was because then you have the full power of the individual concentrated in this head. And it becomes a prophetic head, like the head of Orpheus that sang after death. And there are many European traditions. There's the Irish head of Bran. There are other versions of these severed heads that become prophetic.

And that's what I would suggest this head is doing. It is becoming a prophetic head.

And that's what I would suggest this head is doing. It is becoming a prophetic head.

Quite a lot, because tombs are one of the archaeological phenomena that's been investigated extensively. In the region that we're looking at, one of the commonest forms of burial for distinguished individuals, but also ordinary people, was the earthen mound, the tumulus.

Quite a lot, because tombs are one of the archaeological phenomena that's been investigated extensively. In the region that we're looking at, one of the commonest forms of burial for distinguished individuals, but also ordinary people, was the earthen mound, the tumulus.

And if you travel around the East Balkans, you will see lots and lots of these mounds. And many of them are collective burials, but some of them are individual burials. So typically the ruling class, and we're not talking about a narrow range of individuals, we're talking about quite a wide social group. People who had power regionally and locally would be buried under an urban mound.

And if you travel around the East Balkans, you will see lots and lots of these mounds. And many of them are collective burials, but some of them are individual burials. So typically the ruling class, and we're not talking about a narrow range of individuals, we're talking about quite a wide social group. People who had power regionally and locally would be buried under an urban mound.

And we have the goddess Hera stepping down from Mount Olympus and floating across the sea towards the river Hebron. So there's a rather mystical feel about what this territory was like and who lived there. And we hear about some of the heroic figures from the participants on the Trojan side. And maybe the most spectacular is the leader, Rysos, with his wonderful decorated armour and horse gear.

And we have the goddess Hera stepping down from Mount Olympus and floating across the sea towards the river Hebron. So there's a rather mystical feel about what this territory was like and who lived there. And we hear about some of the heroic figures from the participants on the Trojan side. And maybe the most spectacular is the leader, Rysos, with his wonderful decorated armour and horse gear.

And this is partly connected to ideas about the afterlife. and partly to the status of those individuals in life. Those who had leadership responsibilities are buried in these earthen mounds. And sometimes they're buried simply in a pit in the ground and sometimes inside a built stone sarcophagus or chamber. And the purpose there is to enable that individual to continue an existence after death.

And this is partly connected to ideas about the afterlife. and partly to the status of those individuals in life. Those who had leadership responsibilities are buried in these earthen mounds. And sometimes they're buried simply in a pit in the ground and sometimes inside a built stone sarcophagus or chamber. And the purpose there is to enable that individual to continue an existence after death.

And we have some hints about what that otherworldly existence involves. But one of the things that it is thought to involve is coming back, coming back as a prophet or as a seer or some sort of unearthly return.

And we have some hints about what that otherworldly existence involves. But one of the things that it is thought to involve is coming back, coming back as a prophet or as a seer or some sort of unearthly return.

We do have a lot of information about elite burials. And when we talk about the elite, as I said, we're actually talking about quite a large social group because they seem to represent local leadership, dynasties or social groups. But there are collective burials. There are secondary burials within these tumuli, not necessarily regularly, but they do exist.

We do have a lot of information about elite burials. And when we talk about the elite, as I said, we're actually talking about quite a large social group because they seem to represent local leadership, dynasties or social groups. But there are collective burials. There are secondary burials within these tumuli, not necessarily regularly, but they do exist.

On the other hand, we know very little about the burial of what we would call ordinary people. We don't have extensive cemeteries until later in the Hellenistic age and the Roman Empire. And even then, they're not really as common as we would like them to be. So there's a lack of comparison. We don't quite know what to do with this What happened to everybody else?

On the other hand, we know very little about the burial of what we would call ordinary people. We don't have extensive cemeteries until later in the Hellenistic age and the Roman Empire. And even then, they're not really as common as we would like them to be. So there's a lack of comparison. We don't quite know what to do with this What happened to everybody else?

Were they actually buried in some other manner? We just don't really know enough about that. That's something else that people ought to think about, not just thinking about the elite.

Were they actually buried in some other manner? We just don't really know enough about that. That's something else that people ought to think about, not just thinking about the elite.

Oh, certainly. It was a major province and And the major centers, the big urban foci of Thrace, actually flourished to an extraordinary degree. And Thrace was even the source of some of the later emperors. So this partly reflects the way in which the Eastern Mediterranean was refocused. in response to external threats. But under the Roman Empire, Thrace is a very successful region.

Oh, certainly. It was a major province and And the major centers, the big urban foci of Thrace, actually flourished to an extraordinary degree. And Thrace was even the source of some of the later emperors. So this partly reflects the way in which the Eastern Mediterranean was refocused. in response to external threats. But under the Roman Empire, Thrace is a very successful region.

It's a province that continues to flourish. It has very big cities. It has an educated and successful population. So this really takes forward that whole history of urban development that began much earlier. There are Thracian gladiators who fight in a particular way And this is a bit different in style from what we find earlier.

It's a province that continues to flourish. It has very big cities. It has an educated and successful population. So this really takes forward that whole history of urban development that began much earlier. There are Thracian gladiators who fight in a particular way And this is a bit different in style from what we find earlier.

But perhaps the development of the Thracian gladiator owes something to the story of Spartacus and his great reputation as a leader of the slave revolt in 73 to 71 BC. The story of Spartacus has obviously been an enormous inspiration for people then and since. I was surprised how many references there are, even in Cicero to Spartacus.

But perhaps the development of the Thracian gladiator owes something to the story of Spartacus and his great reputation as a leader of the slave revolt in 73 to 71 BC. The story of Spartacus has obviously been an enormous inspiration for people then and since. I was surprised how many references there are, even in Cicero to Spartacus.

You don't expect the name Spartacus to have become a rather everyday reference amongst certainly educated Romans. And I think that does reflect the way in which Spartacus clearly had an effect even on those who considered the slaves to be people who should be put down. Spartacus made that impression.

You don't expect the name Spartacus to have become a rather everyday reference amongst certainly educated Romans. And I think that does reflect the way in which Spartacus clearly had an effect even on those who considered the slaves to be people who should be put down. Spartacus made that impression.

Kirk Douglas was a very worthy representative of that tradition, and I think he has continued to live in people's imagination as a visual representation of how we imagine Spartacus. And if you only think of all the football teams that have Spartak in their names, I'm astonished that this has continued to have such an impact. And it has had tremendous afterlife in politics.

Kirk Douglas was a very worthy representative of that tradition, and I think he has continued to live in people's imagination as a visual representation of how we imagine Spartacus. And if you only think of all the football teams that have Spartak in their names, I'm astonished that this has continued to have such an impact. And it has had tremendous afterlife in politics.

Karl Marx, who thought of Spartacus as a hero, and an enormous industry in the communist era that generated works about Spartacus, the proletarian leader. So the afterlife of Spartacus has been a tremendous one.

Karl Marx, who thought of Spartacus as a hero, and an enormous industry in the communist era that generated works about Spartacus, the proletarian leader. So the afterlife of Spartacus has been a tremendous one.

And this is, of course, something special. that we actually find in real burials, but rather later on, several hundred years later, when we have... princely tombs that have been excavated in Aegean Greece and in Bulgaria that reflect these spectacular figures. And some of the plays written in Athens in the 5th century also reflect a little bit of that spectacular glory. The

And this is, of course, something special. that we actually find in real burials, but rather later on, several hundred years later, when we have... princely tombs that have been excavated in Aegean Greece and in Bulgaria that reflect these spectacular figures. And some of the plays written in Athens in the 5th century also reflect a little bit of that spectacular glory. The

Thank you very much, Tristan. It's been a pleasure. Thank you.

Thank you very much, Tristan. It's been a pleasure. Thank you.

Wonderful horses, the beautifully decorated horse gear and these extraordinary leaders. So we get a little bit of that reflection that first appears in the Homeric poems.

Wonderful horses, the beautifully decorated horse gear and these extraordinary leaders. So we get a little bit of that reflection that first appears in the Homeric poems.

Well, there are various Greek writings that refer to Thracians. Some of them refer to Thracians as heroes, like the Homeric poems. The comedies that were written in Athens refer in the second half of the 5th century, refer to Thracian slaves. So we get a full spectrum of society in Greek sources, but probably the most important writer about Thrace was the historian Thucydides.

Well, there are various Greek writings that refer to Thracians. Some of them refer to Thracians as heroes, like the Homeric poems. The comedies that were written in Athens refer in the second half of the 5th century, refer to Thracian slaves. So we get a full spectrum of society in Greek sources, but probably the most important writer about Thrace was the historian Thucydides.

Because Thucydides was connected with this region. So Thucydides was one of those rare authors who wrote about the history of his own lifetime. So he was writing about contemporary affairs. And he himself had family connections with, with parts of Thrace that are now in northern Greece around the great silver mountain Pangaeon. He had a silver concession, a mine concession there.

Because Thucydides was connected with this region. So Thucydides was one of those rare authors who wrote about the history of his own lifetime. So he was writing about contemporary affairs. And he himself had family connections with, with parts of Thrace that are now in northern Greece around the great silver mountain Pangaeon. He had a silver concession, a mine concession there.

So he knew quite a lot about the area. He knew a lot about the people. But he doesn't tell us a great deal about these local connections. He mainly tells us about the big picture, the politics of his day, the international relations, and that means the Athenians, the Spartans, and, of course, these various Thracian rulers who were referred to in his history and history.

So he knew quite a lot about the area. He knew a lot about the people. But he doesn't tell us a great deal about these local connections. He mainly tells us about the big picture, the politics of his day, the international relations, and that means the Athenians, the Spartans, and, of course, these various Thracian rulers who were referred to in his history and history.

Top of the list is King Sitalkes, who invaded the Halkidic Peninsula of northern Greece at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. He was allegedly an ally of the Athenians. So this was an alliance which united one side of the war, the Peloponnesian War, with these foreign troops.

Top of the list is King Sitalkes, who invaded the Halkidic Peninsula of northern Greece at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. He was allegedly an ally of the Athenians. So this was an alliance which united one side of the war, the Peloponnesian War, with these foreign troops.

But the Athenians got a little bit scared because suddenly there were literally hundreds of thousands of people moving south. So this was a bit of a no-no for the Athenians, and they decided to pull out of this alliance rather quickly. But what we do learn from this

But the Athenians got a little bit scared because suddenly there were literally hundreds of thousands of people moving south. So this was a bit of a no-no for the Athenians, and they decided to pull out of this alliance rather quickly. But what we do learn from this

later affairs towards the end of the Peloponnesian War and from various inscriptions that survive from the 5th and the 4th centuries BC, is that the international power, the big movers and shakers of contemporary affairs, really did feel that they needed to find some kind of political opportunity alignment with the rulers of this region because they were big players.

later affairs towards the end of the Peloponnesian War and from various inscriptions that survive from the 5th and the 4th centuries BC, is that the international power, the big movers and shakers of contemporary affairs, really did feel that they needed to find some kind of political opportunity alignment with the rulers of this region because they were big players.

And it's mainly the inscriptions that tell us about this history because a lot of the writers that we read or that dominate this period were not terribly interested in the locals. They were interested in locals who came to them, who happened to be either landowners or slaves, but they weren't terribly interested in political affairs.

And it's mainly the inscriptions that tell us about this history because a lot of the writers that we read or that dominate this period were not terribly interested in the locals. They were interested in locals who came to them, who happened to be either landowners or slaves, but they weren't terribly interested in political affairs.

So apart from Thucydides and Xenophon, who we might say something about in due course, most contemporary writers are not terribly interested in local affairs. They're interested in the prominent political figure like Alcibiades goes off and occupies a couple of forts on the coastline near the Hellespontine Straits. Then they're interested, but otherwise it sort of rather falls below the radar.

So apart from Thucydides and Xenophon, who we might say something about in due course, most contemporary writers are not terribly interested in local affairs. They're interested in the prominent political figure like Alcibiades goes off and occupies a couple of forts on the coastline near the Hellespontine Straits. Then they're interested, but otherwise it sort of rather falls below the radar.

Well, from an economic point of view, it was and is rich agricultural land when I first went to do fieldwork in Bulgaria in the last days of communist government in Bulgaria. There were lots of very well-organized collective farms that produced intensively grown food. And this is in the Thracian plain, the central part of Bulgaria.

Well, from an economic point of view, it was and is rich agricultural land when I first went to do fieldwork in Bulgaria in the last days of communist government in Bulgaria. There were lots of very well-organized collective farms that produced intensively grown food. And this is in the Thracian plain, the central part of Bulgaria.

And Bulgaria was a very big exporter of agricultural produce to the Soviet Union, but also to parts of North Africa, other regions of the world, and indeed to the UK as well. The local railway repair works were involved in negotiations with British Rail over freight production. So we have two foundations really of economic success.

And Bulgaria was a very big exporter of agricultural produce to the Soviet Union, but also to parts of North Africa, other regions of the world, and indeed to the UK as well. The local railway repair works were involved in negotiations with British Rail over freight production. So we have two foundations really of economic success.

One is this agricultural one and the other one is about minerals, the mineral exploitation of the region. It's a very good source of a wide range of minerals, and some of them continue to be exploited on a significant scale today. But in antiquity, it was about silver and iron, as well as copper. These were really the prime minerals.

One is this agricultural one and the other one is about minerals, the mineral exploitation of the region. It's a very good source of a wide range of minerals, and some of them continue to be exploited on a significant scale today. But in antiquity, it was about silver and iron, as well as copper. These were really the prime minerals.

And that's what people were very interested in getting from this region.

And that's what people were very interested in getting from this region.

Well, in order to determine where metals come from, you've got to understand the geology and you've got to be able to match objects that are made from particular metals to particular sources. And there are various ways in which that can be done scientifically. But we can be reasonably sure that copper was mined in eastern Bulgaria in the

Well, in order to determine where metals come from, you've got to understand the geology and you've got to be able to match objects that are made from particular metals to particular sources. And there are various ways in which that can be done scientifically. But we can be reasonably sure that copper was mined in eastern Bulgaria in the

the lowland regions and the upland regions that are in the area between European Turkey and Bulgaria, the mountains that are just north of that border with Turkey and further west into the central Bulgarian region. These are the copper mines of that area. Rhodope is a great source of silver and other minerals that are very good to exploit.

the lowland regions and the upland regions that are in the area between European Turkey and Bulgaria, the mountains that are just north of that border with Turkey and further west into the central Bulgarian region. These are the copper mines of that area. Rhodope is a great source of silver and other minerals that are very good to exploit.

Iron was probably produced in central Bulgaria, and this is one of the things that I've been investigating during my field research. Iron objects are produced in very large numbers in central Bulgaria, and this probably reflects local exploitation of particular iron deposits within that region, as well as gold. River gold is one of the most important minerals from central Bulgaria as well. So,

Iron was probably produced in central Bulgaria, and this is one of the things that I've been investigating during my field research. Iron objects are produced in very large numbers in central Bulgaria, and this probably reflects local exploitation of particular iron deposits within that region, as well as gold. River gold is one of the most important minerals from central Bulgaria as well. So,

These are the prime areas that we know about. Other areas were probably also exploited, but we don't know as much about them.

These are the prime areas that we know about. Other areas were probably also exploited, but we don't know as much about them.

So we know quite a lot about the region, the Southeast European area, the Balkan region, in the Neolithic age. The Neolithic is the period of the first settled farming communities in Southeast Europe. And there's been a big project recently looking at the development of domesticated plants in this whole area. And it's been an excellent project. It's called Plant Cult.

So we know quite a lot about the region, the Southeast European area, the Balkan region, in the Neolithic age. The Neolithic is the period of the first settled farming communities in Southeast Europe. And there's been a big project recently looking at the development of domesticated plants in this whole area. And it's been an excellent project. It's called Plant Cult.

And it has really discovered the shared characteristics of plant domestication in the whole of this region, and that includes the Greek Peninsula and the rest of the East Balkan area. So this is the foundation of plants. southeastern Europe in terms of settled communities.

And it has really discovered the shared characteristics of plant domestication in the whole of this region, and that includes the Greek Peninsula and the rest of the East Balkan area. So this is the foundation of plants. southeastern Europe in terms of settled communities.

And on the basis of this very successful plant and animal domestication, you have the emergence in the early Bronze Age of settled communities living on tails, these man-made mountains that represent the best known settlements of the Bronze Age. That's the period between the 4th and the 2nd millennium BC is more or less the period of the Bronze Age.

And on the basis of this very successful plant and animal domestication, you have the emergence in the early Bronze Age of settled communities living on tails, these man-made mountains that represent the best known settlements of the Bronze Age. That's the period between the 4th and the 2nd millennium BC is more or less the period of the Bronze Age.

And in the second millennium, there are some very close connections between this area and northwestern Turkey. So the area of ancient Troy, there is commonality of people. various cultural features. So there clearly were connections between these regions. And if anything, recent research has reinforced those connections.

And in the second millennium, there are some very close connections between this area and northwestern Turkey. So the area of ancient Troy, there is commonality of people. various cultural features. So there clearly were connections between these regions. And if anything, recent research has reinforced those connections.

So it may be that the stories that we find in written poems, such as Homer, do reflect something about that Bronze Age background. But the poems themselves reflect a later period, the early first millennium BC, when we find ships travelling regularly up to the north, mainly merchant ships. And the frequency of these visits seems to be what generates the stories. So once these become regular,

forms of traffic, then we get these stories emerging. And they're connected with the difficult journeys right up into the Black Sea. So, you know, the Argonautic legends are very much part of that background.

because it's connected to the stopping-off points along the North Aegean coast, as well as the difficulties of actually penetrating the dangerous waters of the Bosporus Basin.

I think part of the problem with this question is that we use a few small statements that in a small number of writers and big them up. And then we think that that's reality. But the warlike aspect of Thracians that comes across, it's a very strong subtext, is partly connected to people who are thought of as a bit dangerous, actually quite powerful. You need to take them seriously.

And much of that sense of war-likeness is reflected in the journey that Xenophon, the historian, made to become a mercenary of the prince Seuthes and spend about a month or so as a mercenary with some of his fellow Greeks who were trying to get back to Greece from Asia Minor.

Yes, yes. Seuthes, who appears in Xenophon's Anabasis, where Xenophon recalls how the Greeks, after being defeated by the Persian prince who managed to defeat his brother Cyrus, all the supporters of Cyrus had to somehow get away. Some of them were

killed but some of them got away and Xenophon was one of them and he tells us all about their adventures trying to get back to Greece and on the final leg of their journey They try and get across to Byzantium, and the Spartan governor of Byzantium doesn't want to know them. He wants them to get away. So this is 400 BC, and Xenophon and his chaps decide, well, we can't get back to Greece yet.

We might as well make the most of this and go and fight for this prince Euthysius. defeat a few villagers using our good Greek infantry tactics and armor and get a bit of a bonus in the process. So they get paid for their services. And Xenophon is sort of in two minds about how he describes this, because on the one hand,

He wants to show how he and his men got into some scrapes and managed to escape from them because he's telling all his friends back home about what it's like. And at the same time, he's a little bit embarrassed about being a mercenary in this area. So he bigs up what the mercenaries do and downplays the opposition.

Well, they weren't just mercenaries. They were regular soldiers. The history of Alexander the Great is peppered with Thracian detachments. And when people talk about Thracian fighters, they sort of forget about all those Thracians who went off and fought with Alexander the Great. Well, what about them? What were the strengths of Thracian soldiers? Well, particularly cavalry.

Cavalry fighting was quite difficult. We're dealing with a period where people don't have the sort of equipment that more modern cavalries have. They didn't have stirrups. So they were using their real experience as horsemen to fight effectively from a horse without falling off. And that's not something that you can learn quickly.

So successful cavalry warfare is something that we associate with northern Greece and with the Balkans. And there are various cavalry armies that were really very effective in the period before the Roman Empire. We hear about the Illyrians who defeated Philip II of Macedon's older brother and killed him off.

That was a tremendous defeat for the Macedonians, and they had to improve their cavalry tactics. And at the same time, you've got Thracians being very effective cavalrymen. And that's one of the reasons why we have Thracian units in Alexander's army. They do enhance the cavalry capacity of those troops that crossed over into Asia to fight the Persians.

So this is one of the reasons why we hear about lots of Thracians fighting for the successor kings. We get Thracians in Egypt who were given land by the Ptolemies because they were effective military fighters, because these were people who were there not just as settlers, they were there also because of their military skills. And we have Macedonians like that. And we also have Thracians.

So when we think about Thracians, we shouldn't just be thinking about the unusual people equipment, which is certainly true. It's not been very easy to find examples of these sorts of weapons. But the rum fire, I think, is the type of very sharp and long javelin that you were referring to. So, Really, this is part of the story of Thracian warfare that hasn't really been discovered yet.

It would be great to know more about those sorts of tactics. And Thracian horsemen continued to be of great interest in the period when the Romans expanded into the Balkans. And we find Thracians and then Sarmatians all over the place because they're jolly useful cavalrymen. So cavalry fighting was really one of the key areas.

And the other one was light-armed troops who could provide slingers or essentially guerrilla tactics.

Herodotus does adopt this phrase that if all the Thracians united together, they would be more powerful than anyone else. It is a very powerful anecdote. The period between the middle of the 5th century and the time of Philip II of Macedon, so the middle of the 4th century, this is a period when

a large part of Thrace between the Danube and the Aegean coastline was effectively united under a single dynasty, the Odrysian kings. And this was partly in response to what happened in the region during the Persian Wars, because the Persian Wars were really very... and damaging for all the European dwellers of southeastern Europe.

There are some traces of massacres in Romanian territory around the city of Histria, which suggests that the Persians might have been much more vindictive towards those who did not show them absolute sovereignty. So the period between 500 BC and the successful battles in 479 BC

This is a period which is extremely problematic for all the people who found themselves effectively enslaved by Persian authorities. So the reaction to that was to seek refuge. some sort of political unification. There was a willingness on the part of various political groupings to unite.

And that may have been a stronger sense of unity than there actually was in much of the Greek mainland, where many Greeks continued to fight amongst themselves. And, of course, some of them were fighting on the Persian side in the Persian Wars as Some of them were forced into that. Some of them took advantage of that.

Thank you. Thank you, Tristan. I'm really pleased to be contributing something on this exciting topic.

So the Persian Wars were a very difficult time, and they did create particular new perspectives on international affairs. Before that time, there hadn't really been any incentive to create any sort of unitary authority. And we find after the Persian Wars, the strengthening and enlargement of Macedonia under Alexander I and Thrace a little bit later. But

In the immediate aftermath, we're not quite sure exactly how that panned out, but the same process seems to have taken place in much of the area south of the Balkan range. And this seems to have been really quite a stable authority. There are lots of historians who think of it as a rather unstable state of affairs, but there is no evidence for this instability. It's largely imaginary.

We don't have much evidence of this in written records, but what we do have is lots and lots of archaeology. And it's the archaeology that really gives us most of our information about what was actually going on. And this period between about 450 onwards is one of real economic boom in this region.

And that's reflected in commercial relations, which means import and export of various commodities, the import of wine and olive oil, the export of iron objects, weapons, tools, and all kinds of other products, probably textiles, the textiles that appear on Athenian vases, the sort of nice patterned cloaks.

These are the kinds of things that were likely exported as well as produced in large quantities for internal consumption. So it's a very lively traffic and we see this

Well, indeed. We can start with Homer. This is one of our first written sources about people called Thracians. And the Homeric poems refer to Thracians as allies of the Trojans and therefore allies enemies of the Greeks from the mainland.

In those places that have been excavated intensively, I've been associated with a place called Pisteros, which is bang in the middle of the Thracian plain and was a very big city that was importing and exporting various kinds of commodities.

Yes, yes. You've mentioned Seuthopolis, and Seuthopolis is one of those key sites named after the ruler Seuthes III, who fought Lysimachus, one of Alexander the Great's successors in the region. And there is also Helles, the modern name Sporianovo. This is a big fortress city, very extensive territory,

which is perhaps the site of the headquarters of another opponent of Lysimachus, namely Dromychites. So we have a number of excavated places that we can point to. But it's worth saying that many cities were created in this period that haven't survived. And that's true of Macedonia as it is of Thrace. And this is simply because cities were a relatively ephemeral phenomenon for a long time.

And it's only the ones that have survived into the Roman Empire that we've really paid attention to because they've survived. And there are lots of reasons why they survived. But the survivors conceal a lot of what we would like to know about earlier periods.

So the critical phase before the Roman Empire, what we call the Hellenistic Age between the 3rd and the 1st centuries BC, this is a largely unknown period, and not just in Thrace, also in many other parts of the Aegean. We'd like to know more about it, and this is true of The Levant, the great cities. I mean, you think about Antioch on the Orontes.

What do we really know about Antioch in this period? We'd love to know more.

Yes.

But if we look at these references in detail, we can see that most of the information comes from seafaring sources, people who actually crossed the Aegean Sea and met other people at the other end. But this sort of writing reflects a real curiosity about the north, the north, the exciting north. which is part of the unknown territory of Europe.

It is. It's a fantastic find. I wrote a master's thesis about the Panagioriste treasure. And it is. It's a very, very extraordinary find. It was displayed in the British Museum just over a year ago.

It's also part of the finds that are on display at the Getty Research Institute at the Getty Villa in Malibu. The Panagiarista treasure is a collection of drinking vessels made entirely of gold. This is absolutely extraordinary because very little gold tableware survives from any period. We hear about Renaissance gold plates and things, but you don't often find them surviving.

They've usually been melted down. So the Panagirishtha treasure is unique because of this factor. and it was buried until the late 1940s, so it survived accidentally. But what is even more extraordinary about it is the way in which particular vessel forms are connected with relief imagery, imagery represented in repoussé, figures.

So we have animal representations, we have figure scenes from Greek mythology. Now, it is worth considering whether some of these myths were shared myths rather than being exclusively Greek myths. Even to suggest this is a little bit But many myths from the remote past were Indo-European myths. They weren't exclusively Greek or Italian or Anatolian.

But they take different forms in different linguistic traditions. And here I'd like to point to another truly remarkable piece of archaeology, which is the head of King Seuthes III.

It is. It's one of the finest bronze portrait heads ever. and indeed one of the earliest surviving portrait heads from antiquity. And it was found in the entrance to a tomb, a tomb that was not looted and therefore contained a lot of the original artifacts. But this head originally belonged to a complete statue. And the head was

cut off rather roughly, presumably after the death of Cephas III, and placed in the entrance of the tomb. So why cut off the bronze head of a statue and put it in the tomb? Because it then becomes a severed head. And in a recent article, which is freely available online, I have suggested, and I'm not the first person to suggest this, but I think it's an independently suggested thing.

I've suggested that the reason why this head was cut off the statue was because then you have the full power of the individual concentrated in this head. And it becomes a prophetic head, like the head of Orpheus that sang after death. And there are many European traditions. There's the Irish head of Bran. There are other versions of these severed heads that become prophetic.

And that's what I would suggest this head is doing. It is becoming a prophetic head.

Quite a lot, because tombs are one of the archaeological phenomena that's been investigated extensively. In the region that we're looking at, one of the commonest forms of burial for distinguished individuals, but also ordinary people, was the earthen mound, the tumulus.

And if you travel around the East Balkans, you will see lots and lots of these mounds. And many of them are collective burials, but some of them are individual burials. So typically the ruling class, and we're not talking about a narrow range of individuals, we're talking about quite a wide social group. People who had power regionally and locally would be buried under an urban mound.

And we have the goddess Hera stepping down from Mount Olympus and floating across the sea towards the river Hebron. So there's a rather mystical feel about what this territory was like and who lived there. And we hear about some of the heroic figures from the participants on the Trojan side. And maybe the most spectacular is the leader, Rysos, with his wonderful decorated armour and horse gear.

And this is partly connected to ideas about the afterlife. and partly to the status of those individuals in life. Those who had leadership responsibilities are buried in these earthen mounds. And sometimes they're buried simply in a pit in the ground and sometimes inside a built stone sarcophagus or chamber. And the purpose there is to enable that individual to continue an existence after death.

And we have some hints about what that otherworldly existence involves. But one of the things that it is thought to involve is coming back, coming back as a prophet or as a seer or some sort of unearthly return.

We do have a lot of information about elite burials. And when we talk about the elite, as I said, we're actually talking about quite a large social group because they seem to represent local leadership, dynasties or social groups. But there are collective burials. There are secondary burials within these tumuli, not necessarily regularly, but they do exist.

On the other hand, we know very little about the burial of what we would call ordinary people. We don't have extensive cemeteries until later in the Hellenistic age and the Roman Empire. And even then, they're not really as common as we would like them to be. So there's a lack of comparison. We don't quite know what to do with this What happened to everybody else?

Were they actually buried in some other manner? We just don't really know enough about that. That's something else that people ought to think about, not just thinking about the elite.

Oh, certainly. It was a major province and And the major centers, the big urban foci of Thrace, actually flourished to an extraordinary degree. And Thrace was even the source of some of the later emperors. So this partly reflects the way in which the Eastern Mediterranean was refocused. in response to external threats. But under the Roman Empire, Thrace is a very successful region.

It's a province that continues to flourish. It has very big cities. It has an educated and successful population. So this really takes forward that whole history of urban development that began much earlier. There are Thracian gladiators who fight in a particular way And this is a bit different in style from what we find earlier.

But perhaps the development of the Thracian gladiator owes something to the story of Spartacus and his great reputation as a leader of the slave revolt in 73 to 71 BC. The story of Spartacus has obviously been an enormous inspiration for people then and since. I was surprised how many references there are, even in Cicero to Spartacus.

You don't expect the name Spartacus to have become a rather everyday reference amongst certainly educated Romans. And I think that does reflect the way in which Spartacus clearly had an effect even on those who considered the slaves to be people who should be put down. Spartacus made that impression.

Kirk Douglas was a very worthy representative of that tradition, and I think he has continued to live in people's imagination as a visual representation of how we imagine Spartacus. And if you only think of all the football teams that have Spartak in their names, I'm astonished that this has continued to have such an impact. And it has had tremendous afterlife in politics.

Karl Marx, who thought of Spartacus as a hero, and an enormous industry in the communist era that generated works about Spartacus, the proletarian leader. So the afterlife of Spartacus has been a tremendous one.

And this is, of course, something special. that we actually find in real burials, but rather later on, several hundred years later, when we have... princely tombs that have been excavated in Aegean Greece and in Bulgaria that reflect these spectacular figures. And some of the plays written in Athens in the 5th century also reflect a little bit of that spectacular glory. The

Thank you very much, Tristan. It's been a pleasure. Thank you.

Wonderful horses, the beautifully decorated horse gear and these extraordinary leaders. So we get a little bit of that reflection that first appears in the Homeric poems.

Well, there are various Greek writings that refer to Thracians. Some of them refer to Thracians as heroes, like the Homeric poems. The comedies that were written in Athens refer in the second half of the 5th century, refer to Thracian slaves. So we get a full spectrum of society in Greek sources, but probably the most important writer about Thrace was the historian Thucydides.

Because Thucydides was connected with this region. So Thucydides was one of those rare authors who wrote about the history of his own lifetime. So he was writing about contemporary affairs. And he himself had family connections with, with parts of Thrace that are now in northern Greece around the great silver mountain Pangaeon. He had a silver concession, a mine concession there.

So he knew quite a lot about the area. He knew a lot about the people. But he doesn't tell us a great deal about these local connections. He mainly tells us about the big picture, the politics of his day, the international relations, and that means the Athenians, the Spartans, and, of course, these various Thracian rulers who were referred to in his history and history.

Top of the list is King Sitalkes, who invaded the Halkidic Peninsula of northern Greece at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. He was allegedly an ally of the Athenians. So this was an alliance which united one side of the war, the Peloponnesian War, with these foreign troops.

But the Athenians got a little bit scared because suddenly there were literally hundreds of thousands of people moving south. So this was a bit of a no-no for the Athenians, and they decided to pull out of this alliance rather quickly. But what we do learn from this

later affairs towards the end of the Peloponnesian War and from various inscriptions that survive from the 5th and the 4th centuries BC, is that the international power, the big movers and shakers of contemporary affairs, really did feel that they needed to find some kind of political opportunity alignment with the rulers of this region because they were big players.

And it's mainly the inscriptions that tell us about this history because a lot of the writers that we read or that dominate this period were not terribly interested in the locals. They were interested in locals who came to them, who happened to be either landowners or slaves, but they weren't terribly interested in political affairs.

So apart from Thucydides and Xenophon, who we might say something about in due course, most contemporary writers are not terribly interested in local affairs. They're interested in the prominent political figure like Alcibiades goes off and occupies a couple of forts on the coastline near the Hellespontine Straits. Then they're interested, but otherwise it sort of rather falls below the radar.

Well, from an economic point of view, it was and is rich agricultural land when I first went to do fieldwork in Bulgaria in the last days of communist government in Bulgaria. There were lots of very well-organized collective farms that produced intensively grown food. And this is in the Thracian plain, the central part of Bulgaria.

And Bulgaria was a very big exporter of agricultural produce to the Soviet Union, but also to parts of North Africa, other regions of the world, and indeed to the UK as well. The local railway repair works were involved in negotiations with British Rail over freight production. So we have two foundations really of economic success.

One is this agricultural one and the other one is about minerals, the mineral exploitation of the region. It's a very good source of a wide range of minerals, and some of them continue to be exploited on a significant scale today. But in antiquity, it was about silver and iron, as well as copper. These were really the prime minerals.

And that's what people were very interested in getting from this region.

Well, in order to determine where metals come from, you've got to understand the geology and you've got to be able to match objects that are made from particular metals to particular sources. And there are various ways in which that can be done scientifically. But we can be reasonably sure that copper was mined in eastern Bulgaria in the

the lowland regions and the upland regions that are in the area between European Turkey and Bulgaria, the mountains that are just north of that border with Turkey and further west into the central Bulgarian region. These are the copper mines of that area. Rhodope is a great source of silver and other minerals that are very good to exploit.

Iron was probably produced in central Bulgaria, and this is one of the things that I've been investigating during my field research. Iron objects are produced in very large numbers in central Bulgaria, and this probably reflects local exploitation of particular iron deposits within that region, as well as gold. River gold is one of the most important minerals from central Bulgaria as well. So,

These are the prime areas that we know about. Other areas were probably also exploited, but we don't know as much about them.

So we know quite a lot about the region, the Southeast European area, the Balkan region, in the Neolithic age. The Neolithic is the period of the first settled farming communities in Southeast Europe. And there's been a big project recently looking at the development of domesticated plants in this whole area. And it's been an excellent project. It's called Plant Cult.

And it has really discovered the shared characteristics of plant domestication in the whole of this region, and that includes the Greek Peninsula and the rest of the East Balkan area. So this is the foundation of plants. southeastern Europe in terms of settled communities.

And on the basis of this very successful plant and animal domestication, you have the emergence in the early Bronze Age of settled communities living on tails, these man-made mountains that represent the best known settlements of the Bronze Age. That's the period between the 4th and the 2nd millennium BC is more or less the period of the Bronze Age.

And in the second millennium, there are some very close connections between this area and northwestern Turkey. So the area of ancient Troy, there is commonality of people. various cultural features. So there clearly were connections between these regions. And if anything, recent research has reinforced those connections.