Jeffrey Wasserstrom

Sure. So there's an optimism to this. There's an optimism in the sense of an ability that people can be good. And when exposed to exemplary figures from the past, they'll want to be like those exemplary figures. So it's a form of education through kind of emulation of models and study of past figures and past texts. were exemplary.

And it did have this idea, a relatively positive view of human nature and the sort of changeability of humans through education. And I think that shows through in all kinds of things, even the fact that while there were lots of killings by the Chinese Communist Party and other groups, there was often an idea that people could be remolded,

And it did have this idea, a relatively positive view of human nature and the sort of changeability of humans through education. And I think that shows through in all kinds of things, even the fact that while there were lots of killings by the Chinese Communist Party and other groups, there was often an idea that people could be remolded,

And it did have this idea, a relatively positive view of human nature and the sort of changeability of humans through education. And I think that shows through in all kinds of things, even the fact that while there were lots of killings by the Chinese Communist Party and other groups, there was often an idea that people could be remolded,

And China was one of the few places where they didn't kill the last emperor. The last emperor, the idea was that he could become, anybody could be kind of turned into a citizen of this or a subject of this, a good member of this polity. through the kind of education. Often it was a very kind of forceful form of education, but I think that's a carryover from, from the Confucian times. And, um,

And China was one of the few places where they didn't kill the last emperor. The last emperor, the idea was that he could become, anybody could be kind of turned into a citizen of this or a subject of this, a good member of this polity. through the kind of education. Often it was a very kind of forceful form of education, but I think that's a carryover from, from the Confucian times. And, um,

And China was one of the few places where they didn't kill the last emperor. The last emperor, the idea was that he could become, anybody could be kind of turned into a citizen of this or a subject of this, a good member of this polity. through the kind of education. Often it was a very kind of forceful form of education, but I think that's a carryover from, from the Confucian times. And, um,

Over time, this Confucian idea led to the creation of one of the early great civil service exams, an idea that bureaucracy should be run not by people who were born into the right families, but ones who had shown their ability to master these fairly intensive kind of exams. And the exams were things that could make or break your life.

Over time, this Confucian idea led to the creation of one of the early great civil service exams, an idea that bureaucracy should be run not by people who were born into the right families, but ones who had shown their ability to master these fairly intensive kind of exams. And the exams were things that could make or break your life.

Over time, this Confucian idea led to the creation of one of the early great civil service exams, an idea that bureaucracy should be run not by people who were born into the right families, but ones who had shown their ability to master these fairly intensive kind of exams. And the exams were things that could make or break your life.

A bit like at some points in the American past, passing a bar exam, a really intensive thing, could set you on the road to a good career. In China, you had the civil service exam tradition. So I think this kind of emphasis on education and on valuing of scholarly pursuits...

A bit like at some points in the American past, passing a bar exam, a really intensive thing, could set you on the road to a good career. In China, you had the civil service exam tradition. So I think this kind of emphasis on education and on valuing of scholarly pursuits...

A bit like at some points in the American past, passing a bar exam, a really intensive thing, could set you on the road to a good career. In China, you had the civil service exam tradition. So I think this kind of emphasis on education and on valuing of scholarly pursuits...

But then Chinese leaders throughout history, including up to Mao and Xi Jinping, have also found scholars to be tremendously difficult to control. So there's an ambivalence to it or contradiction again there.

But then Chinese leaders throughout history, including up to Mao and Xi Jinping, have also found scholars to be tremendously difficult to control. So there's an ambivalence to it or contradiction again there.

But then Chinese leaders throughout history, including up to Mao and Xi Jinping, have also found scholars to be tremendously difficult to control. So there's an ambivalence to it or contradiction again there.

There's such a challenge in all these forms of meritocracy because you had the civil serving exams, but the question was if you had a really good tutor, if you could afford a really good tutor, you had a better chance of passing the exams. One thing that happened there was families would...

There's such a challenge in all these forms of meritocracy because you had the civil serving exams, but the question was if you had a really good tutor, if you could afford a really good tutor, you had a better chance of passing the exams. One thing that happened there was families would...

There's such a challenge in all these forms of meritocracy because you had the civil serving exams, but the question was if you had a really good tutor, if you could afford a really good tutor, you had a better chance of passing the exams. One thing that happened there was families would...

would pool together resources to try to help the brightest in their group to be able to become part of the officialdom. And this kind of pooling together resources to help as a family was an important part of that structure. But there also was a kind of... There was always a tension of that. So what if you don't succeed?