Laura Spinney

And it may have been somebody living in the region of the Caucasus, right across the Black Sea, and that these people then eventually all their descendants migrated, one branch going into Anatolia, bringing the Anatolian languages there, and another branch going up onto the steppe and taking the mother of all living Indo-European languages there. And that would then explain this link.

It's a theory. Everybody doesn't support it. But that very early part of the Indo-European story is still somewhat vague. It gets more concrete the closer we come to the present. But that's the presiding idea for the moment, I would say.

It's a theory. Everybody doesn't support it. But that very early part of the Indo-European story is still somewhat vague. It gets more concrete the closer we come to the present. But that's the presiding idea for the moment, I would say.

It's a theory. Everybody doesn't support it. But that very early part of the Indo-European story is still somewhat vague. It gets more concrete the closer we come to the present. But that's the presiding idea for the moment, I would say.

So the sort of frontier between the steppe and non-steppe, if you like, because the non-steppe takes different forms. I guess there would be, the Caucasus would basically mark the frontier in that part of the world. And then you've got Ukraine. Ukraine, as we understand it now, and it's unfortunately a changing story, but the country, modern country, is essentially about half steppe.

So the sort of frontier between the steppe and non-steppe, if you like, because the non-steppe takes different forms. I guess there would be, the Caucasus would basically mark the frontier in that part of the world. And then you've got Ukraine. Ukraine, as we understand it now, and it's unfortunately a changing story, but the country, modern country, is essentially about half steppe.

So the sort of frontier between the steppe and non-steppe, if you like, because the non-steppe takes different forms. I guess there would be, the Caucasus would basically mark the frontier in that part of the world. And then you've got Ukraine. Ukraine, as we understand it now, and it's unfortunately a changing story, but the country, modern country, is essentially about half steppe.

So that's another steppe frontier that crosses modern Ukraine. And this boundary has been absolutely crucial through prehistory and history for one very basic reason that is underpinned by climate and ecology. But the basic reason is that the farmers were on one side of it and the herders were on another.

So that's another steppe frontier that crosses modern Ukraine. And this boundary has been absolutely crucial through prehistory and history for one very basic reason that is underpinned by climate and ecology. But the basic reason is that the farmers were on one side of it and the herders were on another.

So that's another steppe frontier that crosses modern Ukraine. And this boundary has been absolutely crucial through prehistory and history for one very basic reason that is underpinned by climate and ecology. But the basic reason is that the farmers were on one side of it and the herders were on another.

And this was a massive cultural divide, probably also mostly throughout most of time, linguistic divide as well. But these people... engaged in trade. They sometimes fought. They, in a way, interacted importantly in ways that impacted on both their cultures, either side of that line. So it's a crucial thing in forming the linguistic landscape all through this period.

And this was a massive cultural divide, probably also mostly throughout most of time, linguistic divide as well. But these people... engaged in trade. They sometimes fought. They, in a way, interacted importantly in ways that impacted on both their cultures, either side of that line. So it's a crucial thing in forming the linguistic landscape all through this period.

And this was a massive cultural divide, probably also mostly throughout most of time, linguistic divide as well. But these people... engaged in trade. They sometimes fought. They, in a way, interacted importantly in ways that impacted on both their cultures, either side of that line. So it's a crucial thing in forming the linguistic landscape all through this period.

But in the Copper Age, yes, they were trading and the languages expanded through both worlds.

But in the Copper Age, yes, they were trading and the languages expanded through both worlds.

But in the Copper Age, yes, they were trading and the languages expanded through both worlds.

Right. So when the people of Varna started making their wonderful copper objects and everybody suddenly wanted them, They had a massive business opportunity on their hands, but they definitely wouldn't have spoken the same language as those people coming from the Volga in the steppe. And so how did they trade?

Right. So when the people of Varna started making their wonderful copper objects and everybody suddenly wanted them, They had a massive business opportunity on their hands, but they definitely wouldn't have spoken the same language as those people coming from the Volga in the steppe. And so how did they trade?

Right. So when the people of Varna started making their wonderful copper objects and everybody suddenly wanted them, They had a massive business opportunity on their hands, but they definitely wouldn't have spoken the same language as those people coming from the Volga in the steppe. And so how did they trade?

We don't have any evidence throughout history of human beings trading in high value goods without a common language. We've never done that. The assumption is that they would have quickly developed a lingua franca, a language of trade, a common language, as also, of course, happened later around the Mediterranean.