Peter Heather

Well, we get a new element into the equation, and that is around the edge of Rome's European frontiers between the 1st and the 4th century.

We have seen a kind of social and economic and therefore political transformation of largely Germanic-speaking neighbors.

They're becoming a bit more coherent.

Their economic systems are becoming more productive.

So their populations are growing.

They are still client states.

Yes.

Absolutely.

Yeah, Rome turns up once a generation, beats the crap out of them.

Right.

Make a diplomatic agreement.

A lot of formal submissions rather than necessarily head-on conflict, but a little bit of bloodletting just to make the point that the Empire's in charge.

They are becoming more coherent.

You can see that.

By the 4th century, the one change we'd make to the map is to remove that Dacian hump, so Transylvania and Romania.

It's part of the 3rd century crisis, the response to it.

The Empire decides to shorten its defensive lines.

They're too small to beat the Romans.

If the wind is in their favour and conditions are right, they can extract better terms.

Okay.