Venki Ramakrishnan

That's the heart of what we call messenger RNA or mRNA, which again, nobody had heard of a few years ago, but then COVID came along and everybody started shooting mRNA into their muscle. And of course, what that mRNA had was the gene for the spike protein of coronavirus. So when it went into our cells, our ribosomes latched onto it.

That's the heart of what we call messenger RNA or mRNA, which again, nobody had heard of a few years ago, but then COVID came along and everybody started shooting mRNA into their muscle. And of course, what that mRNA had was the gene for the spike protein of coronavirus. So when it went into our cells, our ribosomes latched onto it.

and made spike protein and displayed it to our immune system to react. So it's a perfect example of how all this molecular biology knowledge that we had accumulated over decades suddenly became useful. during a pandemic. People think that the vaccine took 11 months to develop, but actually it took decades.

and made spike protein and displayed it to our immune system to react. So it's a perfect example of how all this molecular biology knowledge that we had accumulated over decades suddenly became useful. during a pandemic. People think that the vaccine took 11 months to develop, but actually it took decades.

And it just so happened that we were at a time, at a point in time where we could very quickly implement these platforms.

And it just so happened that we were at a time, at a point in time where we could very quickly implement these platforms.

It's jumpy in the sense it's stochastic, but it's fairly deterministic. To give you an example, the error rate in making a protein is typically one in a thousand to one in 10,000. And that's quite a low error rate. It's much lower than the best peptide synthesizers that humans can make in the lab, have a much higher error rate and are much slower.

It's jumpy in the sense it's stochastic, but it's fairly deterministic. To give you an example, the error rate in making a protein is typically one in a thousand to one in 10,000. And that's quite a low error rate. It's much lower than the best peptide synthesizers that humans can make in the lab, have a much higher error rate and are much slower.

I mean, a bacterial ribosome adds about 20 residues a second. So if you made a movie of a bacterial ribosome, it would just be a blur. In fact, I have a movie that I sometimes show, and I show it slowly with all the players coming in and out. And then I say, okay, now I'm going to speed it up to real time. And it's just a blur. So it's an amazing machine.

I mean, a bacterial ribosome adds about 20 residues a second. So if you made a movie of a bacterial ribosome, it would just be a blur. In fact, I have a movie that I sometimes show, and I show it slowly with all the players coming in and out. And then I say, okay, now I'm going to speed it up to real time. And it's just a blur. So it's an amazing machine.

And yes, it's stochastic in the sense binding is stochastic. But there is a deterministic... direction to it. And that's because energy is used at each step. And that's what thermodynamically drives it forward in the forward direction.

And yes, it's stochastic in the sense binding is stochastic. But there is a deterministic... direction to it. And that's because energy is used at each step. And that's what thermodynamically drives it forward in the forward direction.

Yeah, so the fact that ribosomes can crystallize suggests that ribosomes are largely identical But there's now a debate in the field.

Yeah, so the fact that ribosomes can crystallize suggests that ribosomes are largely identical But there's now a debate in the field.

There are a group of scientists who believe that ribosomes can be specialized, that in some cells you may get subsets of ribosomes which translate particular mRNAs or translate under certain, you know, translate meaning translate the genetic information into protein. So that they work under certain circumstances. And this field of specialized ribosomes is still somewhat controversial.

There are a group of scientists who believe that ribosomes can be specialized, that in some cells you may get subsets of ribosomes which translate particular mRNAs or translate under certain, you know, translate meaning translate the genetic information into protein. So that they work under certain circumstances. And this field of specialized ribosomes is still somewhat controversial.

But it does have some strong advocates. And I think... I would say the jury's still out, but there is some evidence for specialized ribosomes.

But it does have some strong advocates. And I think... I would say the jury's still out, but there is some evidence for specialized ribosomes.

Very similar. They're not exactly the same because there'll be small genetic differences. So just like, you know, for example, a mouse may be well over 95% or so identical to in some ways to humans. But of course, that same degree will apply to ribosomes and ribosomal proteins. But I will tell you one thing, the core of the ribosome, the part where the amino acids are joined,

Very similar. They're not exactly the same because there'll be small genetic differences. So just like, you know, for example, a mouse may be well over 95% or so identical to in some ways to humans. But of course, that same degree will apply to ribosomes and ribosomal proteins. But I will tell you one thing, the core of the ribosome, the part where the amino acids are joined,