Hu Said: Cardiology Board Review Series
Episodes
2026 ACC/AHA Dyslipidemia Guideline
14 Mar 2026
Contributed by Lukas
When should apoB be measured? In whom should lipoprotein(a) be measured? Should LDL-C be calculated by the Friedewald, Martin-Hopkins, or Sampson-NIH ...
2026 AHA/ACC Acute Pulmonary Embolism Guideline
21 Feb 2026
Contributed by Lukas
What is the new 2026 classification for acute pulmonary embolism? What is the respiratory modifier? What category encompasses normotensive shock? What...
2025 ACC/AHA Adult Congenital Heart Disease Guideline
21 Dec 2025
Contributed by Lukas
What right ventricular end-systolic volume should guide timing of pulmonary valve replacement in tetralogy of Fallot? At what pulmonary vascular resis...
2025 High Blood Pressure Guideline
17 Aug 2025
Contributed by Lukas
What is the new term for hypertensive urgency? When is single-pill combination antihypertensive indicated? Do ACEI/ARB, MRA, and thiazide or potassium...
Special Episode: Music of the Heart: Arrhythmias
04 May 2025
Contributed by Lukas
Can music help us understand cardiac arrhythmias? 🎵💓 In this special podcast episode, I explore how musical notation can be used to visualize an...
2025 Acute Coronary Syndromes Guideline
02 Mar 2025
Contributed by Lukas
Should non-culprit lesions be revascularized in STEMI and NSTEMI? Should revascularization of non-culprit lesions occur in a simultaneous or staged ma...
11.12 Single Ventricle
25 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review congenital single ventricle, including physiology, surgical repair, and long-term management. What are the different types ...
11.11 Transposition of the Great Arteries and Truncus Arteriosus
24 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review transposition of the great arteries (TGA), including the physiology, imaging, repair strategies, and potential complication...
11.10 Ebstein’s Anomaly, Double Right Ventricle, Tricuspid Hypoplasia, Pulmonic Hypoplasia
23 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review right side congenital abnormalities, including Ebstein’s anomaly, double-chambered right ventricle (DCRV), tricuspid hypo...
11.09 Tetralogy of Fallot
22 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF), including its pre-repair issues, surgical options, and post-repair complications. What are the f...
11.08 Coarctation of the Aorta
21 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review coarctation of the aorta (CoA), including its epidemiology, presentation, imaging, and management. Which type of VSD is com...
11.07 Patent Ductus Arteriosus
20 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the physiology, imaging, and management of patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). What is the classic murmur of PDA, and how does ...
11.06 Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return, Persistent Left SVC
19 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore anomalous pulmonary venous return (APVR), including its types, associated conditions, and management. What is the differen...
11.05 Atrioventricular Septal Defects
18 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore atrioventricular septal defects (AVSD), covering its types, physiology, and when to intervene. How do complete, partial, t...
11.04 Ventricular Septal Defects
17 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review ventricular septal defects (VSDs), including their types, physiology, and management. What are the differences between inle...
11.03 Patent Foramen Ovale
16 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review patent foramen ovale (PFO), including its types, physiology, presentation, and when to intervene. How does a PFO differ fro...
11.02 Atrial Septal Defects
15 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review atrial septal defects (ASDs), including their types, imaging, and management. What is the difference between secundum defec...
11.01 Congenital Heart Disease Epidemiology, Physiology, Associations
14 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the epidemiology of congenital heart diseases and develop a framework for categorizing them by cyanotic and non-cyanotic di...
10.01 Cardio-Obstetrics
09 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review highlights of cardiovascular considerations in pregnancy. How does pregnancy affect blood volume, systemic vascular resista...
9.01 Cardiac Masses
04 Oct 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review cardiac masses, including primary benign, primary malignant, and secondary (metastatic) cardiac tumors. Are malignant tumor...
8.04 Orthostatic Hypotension
29 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review orthostatic hypotension (OH). What criteria define OH? What is a simple way to distinguish neurogenic OH from volume deplet...
8.03 Renovascular hypertension, aldosteronism, and pheochromocytoma
26 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore the diagnosis and management of three important causes of secondary hypertension: renovascular hypertension, primary aldos...
8.02 Hypertensive Urgency and Emergency
25 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review hypertensive urgency and emergency. What counts as "end-organ" damage in hypertensive emergency? What neurological signs ar...
8.01 Chronic Hypertension
24 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review chronic hypertension. How did the the definitions of stage 1 and stage 2 hypertension change in the most recent AHA/ACC/ASH...
7.08 Vasculitis
21 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the large vessel vasculitides, medium-vessel vasculitides, ANCA-associated small-vessel vasculitides, and immune complex as...
7.06 Carotid Artery Stenosis
19 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review carotid artery stenosis (CAS), including its presentation, diagnosis, medical management, and intervention. Do dizziness, p...
7.05 Peripheral Artery Disease
18 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review limb peripheral artery disease (PAD). What is the difference in management of a marginally threatened limb vs immediately t...
7.04 Aortic Intramural Hematoma, Penetrating Aortic Ulcer, Aortitis and Aortic Atheroemboli
17 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review aortic intramural hematoma (IMH), penetrating aortic ulcer (PAU), infectious aortitis and aortic atheroemboli. What conditi...
7.03 Aortic Dissection
16 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review aortic dissection, its risk factors, presentation, physical exam findings, imaging findings, and management. Other than aor...
7.02 Abdominal Aorta Aneurysm
15 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), including its diagnosis, screening, and management. What are the current guidelines for sc...
7.01 Ascending Aorta Dilation + Marfan, Turner, Loeys-Dietz Syndromes
14 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review ascending aorta dilation and ascending aorta aneurysm, including the key syndromes associated. What is cystic medial degene...
6.05 Left Ventricular Thrombus
13 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review left ventricular (LV) thrombus, including its pathophysiology, imaging characteristics, and treatment. How are the componen...
6.04 Deep Venous Thrombosis
12 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review deep vein thrombosis (DVT). What are the ultrasound features of a DVT? What counts as a proximal DVT? Why are patients with...
6.02 Calculating Pulmonary Artery Pressures
10 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review how to calculate pulmonary artery pressures (PASP) on echocardiography. How does the simplified Bernoulli equation relate t...
6.01 Pulmonary Hypertension
09 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the essentials of pulmonary hypertension (PH), including the five groups. What echocardiographic findings allow you to dist...
5.02 Inflammatory Pericarditis
05 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we dive into the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of inflammatory pericarditis. How do diagnostic criteria differ for first-...
5.01 Pericardial Effusion and Tamponade
04 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade. What is the definition of small, moderate, and large pericardial effusion? What...
4.19 Patient Prosthesis Mismatch and Prosthetic Valve Stenosis
02 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review patient-prosthesis mismatch (PPM) and prosthetic valve stenosis. What cutoffs for indexed effective orifice area (EOA) sugg...
4.18 Anticoagulation Targets After Valve Replacement
01 Sep 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review anticoagulant targets after valve replacement. What are the anticoagulation goals for mechanical and bioprosthetic valves? ...
4.17 Infective Endocarditis Part 2
31 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we continue our review on infective endocarditis (IE), covering antibiotic prophylaxis, prosthesis-related endocarditis, and device-r...
4.16 Infective Endocarditis Part 1
30 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the epidemiology, diagnosis, and management of infective endocarditis (IE). What five cardinal characteristics lead you to ...
4.15 Differentiating the Doppler envelope of AS, MR, TR, HOCM
29 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review how to differentiate the Doppler signals of aortic stenosis (AS), mitral regurgitation (MR), tricuspid regurgitation (TR), ...
4.14 Common Principles in Valve Regurgitation Quantification
28 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this special episode, we sit down and examine the flowcharts for guideline-based quantification of aortic regurgitation (AR) severity, mitral regur...
4.13 Pulmonic Stenosis and Pulmonic Regurgitation
27 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review pulmonic stenosis (PS) and pulmonic regurgitation (PR). How do you distinguish between the click of pulmonic stenosis, aort...
4.12 Tricuspid Stenosis, Tricuspid Regurgitation, Carcinoid Disease
26 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review tricuspid stenosis (TS) and tricuspid regurgitation (TR). What are the echocardiographic criteria for diagnosing severe TS,...
4.11 Mitral Regurgitation Management
25 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the management of mitral regurgitation (MR). How is the management of chronic primary MR, chronic secondary, and acute MR d...
4.10 Mitral Regurgitatation Quantification
24 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review methods to quantify the severity of mitral regurgitation (MR), including the calculation of effective regurgitant orifice a...
4.09 Mitral Regurgitation Classification
23 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore how mitral regurgitation (MR) is categorized based on anatomy, leaflet motion, and acuity. Are the A1, A2, A3, P1, P2, P3 ...
4.08 Mitral Stenosis
22 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review mitral stenosis (MS), including its epidemiology, presentation, imaging features, and management. What are the main causes ...
4.06 Aortic Regurgitation Types and Management
20 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the types, presentation, physical exam, and management of aortic regurgitation (AR). What is the difference between types I...
4.05 Aortic Valve Replacement
19 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore the timing and indications for aortic valve replacement (AVR) in aortic stenosis (AS). Is it possible to qualify for AVR i...
4.04 Low Gradient, Bicuspid, Unicuspid, Subvalvular, and Supravalvular Aortic Stenosis
18 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore various types of aortic valve stenosis (AS) other than conventional AS, including low-gradient AS, bicuspid and unicuspid ...
4.03 Valve Disease Epidemiology, Conventional Aortic Stenosis
17 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore the epidemiology of valvular disease, and then jump in to aortic stenosis, focusing on the presentation, grading of severi...
3.21 Post Heart Transplant
15 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review post-heart transplant issues, including immunosuppression, rejection, complications, and long-term monitoring. What are the...
3.20 Pre-Heart Transplant
14 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review pre-heart transplantation issues, including indications for heart transplant, exclusion criteria for heart transplant, leve...
3.19 Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing
13 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) and its role in heart failure management and transplant evaluation. What term descr...
3.18 Left Ventricular Assist Devices Part 2
12 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the use of imaging in assessing patients before and after LVAD implantation. What are concerning findings on pre-LVAD echoc...
3.17 Left Ventricular Assist Devices Part 1
12 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review patient selection for left ventricular assist devices (LVADs), LVAD types, components, physiology, and troubleshooting. LVA...
3.16 Intra-Aortic Balloon Pumps
10 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we go over the practical use and management of intra-aortic balloon pumps (IABP) in the cardiac intensive care unit. How does the IAB...
3.15 Inotropes
09 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the use of inotropes in acute decompensated heart failure and cardiogenic shock? What are the effects of activating alpha-1...
3.14 Pressure Waveform Interpretation
08 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review central venous pressure (CVP) waveform interpretation. What is signified by the a, c, and v waves, and the x and y descents...
3.13 Pulmonary Artery (Swan-Ganz) Catheterization
07 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review pulmonary artery (Swan-Ganz) catheterization. What are indications and contraindications to pulmonary artery catheter place...
3.12 Right Ventricular Function
06 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the assessment of right ventricular (RV) size and function. What is the normal range of RV basal diameter, mid diameter, an...
3.11 Diastolic Function and Dysfunction
05 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review diastolic function and diastolic dysfunction. What are the four phases of diastole? What are the characteristics of normal ...
3.10 Diuretic Resistance and Cardiorenal Syndromes
04 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the very common issue of diuretic resistance and cardiorenal syndromes. What are the key actions of diuretics along differe...
3.09 Biomarkers and Lab Abnormalities in Heart Failure
03 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the role of biomarkers and lab abnormalities in congestive heart failure. What are ANP, BNP, CNP, and DNP? What effect does...
3.08 Acute Heart Failure Decompensation
02 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the presentation and management of acute heart failure decompensation (ADHF). Why is venous dilation with IV nitroglycerin ...
3.07 Chronic Heart Failure: Pathophysiology and GDMT
01 Aug 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review chronic heart failure with reduced, mildly reduced, improved, and preserved ejection fraction (HFrEF, HFmrEF, HFimpEF, HFpE...
3.06 Non-compaction cardiomyopathy, stress cardiomyopathy, and myocarditis
31 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we go over the diagnosis and management of non-compaction cardiomyopathy (LVNC), stress cardiomyopathy, and myocarditis. What imaging...
3.05 Dilated Cardiomyopathies
30 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore various forms of dilated cardiomyopathies (DCM) and their distinct features. What are the hallmark characteristics of idio...
3.04 Restrictive Cardiomyopathies, including Amyloidosis
29 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review restrictive cardiomyopathies (RCM), including amyloidosis and hypereosinophilic syndrome. What is the ice-cream cone appear...
3.03 Other Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathies
28 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore types of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) other than idiopathic HCM and obstructive HCM, including apical HCM, Fabry's di...
3.02. HCM and HOCM Part 2
27 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore the medical and surgical management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) and hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM...
3.01 HCM and HOCM Part 1
26 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the diagnosis and imaging of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) and hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM). How does...
2.19 Pre-operative Risk Stratification
24 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review pre-operative cardiovascular risk stratification for noncardiac surgery. What is considered a low-risk surgery? What does "...
2.18 INOCA, SCAD, Cocaine Cardiotoxicity
23 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore ischemia with non-obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA). How is the diagnosis of microvascular angina (MVA) and vasospasti...
2.17 Flow Reserve Measurements
22 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore flow reserve measurements used to determine lesion significance in coronary artery disease. What is the difference between...
2.16 Normal and Anomalous Coronary Arteries
21 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the anatomy of normal coronary arteries and provide a systematic framework for thinking about coronary artery anomalies. Ho...
2.15 Complications of MI
20 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore the complications that can arise following myocardial infarction (MI). What is the Bezold-Jarisch reflex, and which territ...
2.14 Fibrinolysis
19 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore the use of fibrinolysis in managing STEMI when PCI is not immediately available. What is the difference between streptokin...
2.13 Percutaneous Coronary Intervention
18 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore key aspects of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) from the generalist’s perspective. What are the comparative risk...
2.12 Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting
17 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore key aspects of coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) revascularization. What are the 10-year patency rates of internal ma...
2.11 Preventive and Adjunctive Therapies in CAD
16 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review preventive and adjunctive therapies in the management of coronary artery disease (CAD). Who qualifies for cardiac rehabilit...
2.09 Post-MI Medications and Anti-Anginal Medications
14 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review long-term medication therapy for CAD, including medications used post-myocardial infarction (MI) and medications used for a...
2.08 Antiplatelets and Anticoagulation
13 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore the role of antiplatelets and anticoagulants in managing acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and during percutaneous coronary i...
2.07 Hibernation and Stunning
12 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore the concepts in myocardial hibernation and stunning. What is the difference between myocardial stunning, hibernation, and ...
2.06 Anatomic Testing
11 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review anatomic testing for coronary artery disease. When can you draw upon coronary artery calcium (CAC) scoring to guide statin ...
2.05 Stress Testing
10 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the essentials of stress testing, including indications and contraindications of exercise and pharmacologic stress agents, ...
2.04 ACS Part 2
09 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the presentation of acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and the Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction (MI). What ...
2.03 ACS Part 1
08 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review ECG changes in acute coronary syndromes (ACS). What constitutes a significant vs a non-significant Q wave? Can the shape of...
2.02 Apolipoproteins, Lp(a) and Familial Dyslipidemias
07 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review apolipoproteins, Lp(a), and familial dyslipidemias. What roles do apolipoproteins like ApoB48, ApoB100 and ApoA-I play in l...
2.01 ASCVD Risk Estimation and Lipid Lowering
06 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review ASCVD risk estimation and lipid-lowering therapies. What low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) level should be target...
1.19 Pacemaker and ICD Complications
04 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we discuss common complications of pacemaker (PPM) and implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) implantation, along with consider...
1.18 Pacemaker and ICD Terms
03 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we clarify key terms related to pacemakers (PPMs) and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs). What do the common two-letter l...
1.17 Reduction of Ventricular Dyssynchrony
02 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore the concept of ventricular dyssynchrony and cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT). What are the eleven scenarios in whic...
1.16 Programming ICD Therapies
01 Jul 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review the key aspects of ICD therapies. What are typical thresholds for a VT monitor zone, regular VT zone, fast VT zone, and VF ...
1.15 Pacemaker and ICD Interrogation
30 Jun 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we explore the fundamentals of permanent pacemaker (PPM) and implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) interrogation. What are the...
1.14 QT Prolongation
29 Jun 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review QT prolongation and QT shortening. What is the QT interval, and how is it corrected (QTc) for heart rate variations? Which ...
1.13 ARVC and CPVT
28 Jun 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) and catecholaminergic polymorphic VT (CPVT). Other than epsilon wave...
1.12 Brugada Syndrome
27 Jun 2024
Contributed by Lukas
In this episode, we review Brugada Syndrome, syndrome of syncope and/or sudden death in healthy patients associated with mutations in SCN5A. How is Br...