Professor Peter Heather

Absolutely. You get very temporary alliances. They don't last long even in victory, like Arminius' doesn't, for instance. But by the late empire, we get in the Roman sources, a smaller number of names appearing. So Franks and Alamanni on the Rhine, Saxons behind them, fairly small groups actually opposite what's now the Danube band in Hungary.

Absolutely. You get very temporary alliances. They don't last long even in victory, like Arminius' doesn't, for instance. But by the late empire, we get in the Roman sources, a smaller number of names appearing. So Franks and Alamanni on the Rhine, Saxons behind them, fairly small groups actually opposite what's now the Danube band in Hungary.

Absolutely. You get very temporary alliances. They don't last long even in victory, like Arminius' doesn't, for instance. But by the late empire, we get in the Roman sources, a smaller number of names appearing. So Franks and Alamanni on the Rhine, Saxons behind them, fairly small groups actually opposite what's now the Danube band in Hungary.

So Sarmatians and Quadi, but then have another large confederative group Goths of different kinds on the Lower Danube. So the political world, viewed through a Roman lens at least, has changed a lot.

So Sarmatians and Quadi, but then have another large confederative group Goths of different kinds on the Lower Danube. So the political world, viewed through a Roman lens at least, has changed a lot.

So Sarmatians and Quadi, but then have another large confederative group Goths of different kinds on the Lower Danube. So the political world, viewed through a Roman lens at least, has changed a lot.

When you get to the late 4th century, I think there is. Well, the sources, the contemporary sources are absolutely unanimous that the arrival of the Huns across the Western steppe from the Volga to the Ukrainian steppe is what pushes the Goths to the Danube frontier in 376. So certainly that becomes a major factor in the late 4th and 5th centuries.

When you get to the late 4th century, I think there is. Well, the sources, the contemporary sources are absolutely unanimous that the arrival of the Huns across the Western steppe from the Volga to the Ukrainian steppe is what pushes the Goths to the Danube frontier in 376. So certainly that becomes a major factor in the late 4th and 5th centuries.

When you get to the late 4th century, I think there is. Well, the sources, the contemporary sources are absolutely unanimous that the arrival of the Huns across the Western steppe from the Volga to the Ukrainian steppe is what pushes the Goths to the Danube frontier in 376. So certainly that becomes a major factor in the late 4th and 5th centuries.

But we've already seen the evidence quite strongly suggest that there is a movement from, you might say, outer periphery of Germanic groups towards the Roman frontier in the second and third centuries, which has got nothing to do with the Huns. So there's already been movement. There has. Yes, there has.

But we've already seen the evidence quite strongly suggest that there is a movement from, you might say, outer periphery of Germanic groups towards the Roman frontier in the second and third centuries, which has got nothing to do with the Huns. So there's already been movement. There has. Yes, there has.

But we've already seen the evidence quite strongly suggest that there is a movement from, you might say, outer periphery of Germanic groups towards the Roman frontier in the second and third centuries, which has got nothing to do with the Huns. So there's already been movement. There has. Yes, there has.

And I think that makes quite a lot of sense if you think about the type of relations that Rome establishes with these frontier groups, which often involves favorable trading relations, diplomatic presence, all kinds of things for the groups around the frontier. Because the practical deal beyond the ideological point of showing that you're superior, which is not unimportant,

And I think that makes quite a lot of sense if you think about the type of relations that Rome establishes with these frontier groups, which often involves favorable trading relations, diplomatic presence, all kinds of things for the groups around the frontier. Because the practical deal beyond the ideological point of showing that you're superior, which is not unimportant,

And I think that makes quite a lot of sense if you think about the type of relations that Rome establishes with these frontier groups, which often involves favorable trading relations, diplomatic presence, all kinds of things for the groups around the frontier. Because the practical deal beyond the ideological point of showing that you're superior, which is not unimportant,

The practical deals are about maintaining frontier security in the most efficient way for the empire. So in other words, you want to establish relations with a fairly stable group and you work actually to stabilize it. You don't expect these things to last forever, but you're looking for a kind of 10, 20 year settlement so that you don't have to intervene militarily.

The practical deals are about maintaining frontier security in the most efficient way for the empire. So in other words, you want to establish relations with a fairly stable group and you work actually to stabilize it. You don't expect these things to last forever, but you're looking for a kind of 10, 20 year settlement so that you don't have to intervene militarily.

The practical deals are about maintaining frontier security in the most efficient way for the empire. So in other words, you want to establish relations with a fairly stable group and you work actually to stabilize it. You don't expect these things to last forever, but you're looking for a kind of 10, 20 year settlement so that you don't have to intervene militarily.

So actually a lot of wealth collects amongst the groups immediately adjacent to the frontier. They also play a large role in supplying the foodstuffs and raw materials needs of Roman legions on the Roman frontier. So again, transfer of wealth from empire to the groups immediately adjacent to the frontier.

So actually a lot of wealth collects amongst the groups immediately adjacent to the frontier. They also play a large role in supplying the foodstuffs and raw materials needs of Roman legions on the Roman frontier. So again, transfer of wealth from empire to the groups immediately adjacent to the frontier.