Professor Peter Heather

So actually a lot of wealth collects amongst the groups immediately adjacent to the frontier. They also play a large role in supplying the foodstuffs and raw materials needs of Roman legions on the Roman frontier. So again, transfer of wealth from empire to the groups immediately adjacent to the frontier.

So wealth, there is a kind of overall revolution, economic revolution unfolding in the Germanic world between the first in the fourth centuries, but it's not evenly spread. The wealth concentrates near the frontier, and ambitious groups further away want to be part of that action.

So wealth, there is a kind of overall revolution, economic revolution unfolding in the Germanic world between the first in the fourth centuries, but it's not evenly spread. The wealth concentrates near the frontier, and ambitious groups further away want to be part of that action.

So wealth, there is a kind of overall revolution, economic revolution unfolding in the Germanic world between the first in the fourth centuries, but it's not evenly spread. The wealth concentrates near the frontier, and ambitious groups further away want to be part of that action.

Yeah, there are some specific examples where groups want to get out of the action, but it's too competitive and too difficult. They do ask. The Latin term is receptio, being received onto Roman territory. There's one small group that do this in the second century as part of the so-called Marcomannic War. But Rome also...

Yeah, there are some specific examples where groups want to get out of the action, but it's too competitive and too difficult. They do ask. The Latin term is receptio, being received onto Roman territory. There's one small group that do this in the second century as part of the so-called Marcomannic War. But Rome also...

Yeah, there are some specific examples where groups want to get out of the action, but it's too competitive and too difficult. They do ask. The Latin term is receptio, being received onto Roman territory. There's one small group that do this in the second century as part of the so-called Marcomannic War. But Rome also...

often transfers populations away from the immediate frontier region because it's aware that competition taking place there, which is always military, might spill over onto Roman territory. So they don't want the immediate frontier zone to be too crowded because that will lead to conflict and it will spill over.

often transfers populations away from the immediate frontier region because it's aware that competition taking place there, which is always military, might spill over onto Roman territory. So they don't want the immediate frontier zone to be too crowded because that will lead to conflict and it will spill over.

often transfers populations away from the immediate frontier region because it's aware that competition taking place there, which is always military, might spill over onto Roman territory. So they don't want the immediate frontier zone to be too crowded because that will lead to conflict and it will spill over.

It's different in a couple of ways. In the second and third century, well actually in the first century too, there are resettlements. Rome is always militarily in control of the situation. So really quite large numbers of people are moved around sometimes. There's an inscription from the Balkans which claims that in the first century over 100,000 people are being moved around.

It's different in a couple of ways. In the second and third century, well actually in the first century too, there are resettlements. Rome is always militarily in control of the situation. So really quite large numbers of people are moved around sometimes. There's an inscription from the Balkans which claims that in the first century over 100,000 people are being moved around.

It's different in a couple of ways. In the second and third century, well actually in the first century too, there are resettlements. Rome is always militarily in control of the situation. So really quite large numbers of people are moved around sometimes. There's an inscription from the Balkans which claims that in the first century over 100,000 people are being moved around.

Did they count them? Is that real? I don't know. It clearly means a lot of people. More than that, you would hesitate. But it's a lot of people. There's no reason to think it wasn't a lot of people. And similarly on Rhine frontiers too, we do see some major transfers of population. But the empire is controlling it. It doesn't mean that everyone who's moved in is necessarily unarmed.

Did they count them? Is that real? I don't know. It clearly means a lot of people. More than that, you would hesitate. But it's a lot of people. There's no reason to think it wasn't a lot of people. And similarly on Rhine frontiers too, we do see some major transfers of population. But the empire is controlling it. It doesn't mean that everyone who's moved in is necessarily unarmed.

Did they count them? Is that real? I don't know. It clearly means a lot of people. More than that, you would hesitate. But it's a lot of people. There's no reason to think it wasn't a lot of people. And similarly on Rhine frontiers too, we do see some major transfers of population. But the empire is controlling it. It doesn't mean that everyone who's moved in is necessarily unarmed.

Some of these people you want to use as sources of auxiliary troops. New recruits for the Empire. Absolutely. And they might have particular skills. So the Batavi from Batavia are very good light cavalry. You don't want to change them. They're like the Gurkhas or the Scottish Highland regiments in the 18th, 19th century British army. They have specific characteristics. They're very good soldiers.

Some of these people you want to use as sources of auxiliary troops. New recruits for the Empire. Absolutely. And they might have particular skills. So the Batavi from Batavia are very good light cavalry. You don't want to change them. They're like the Gurkhas or the Scottish Highland regiments in the 18th, 19th century British army. They have specific characteristics. They're very good soldiers.

Some of these people you want to use as sources of auxiliary troops. New recruits for the Empire. Absolutely. And they might have particular skills. So the Batavi from Batavia are very good light cavalry. You don't want to change them. They're like the Gurkhas or the Scottish Highland regiments in the 18th, 19th century British army. They have specific characteristics. They're very good soldiers.

You want them to be what they are. But what's different about 376 onwards is the lack of Roman control on the one hand, and that partly reflects the other big difference, which is the size and degree of autonomy that the intrusive groups retain.